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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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Shelf J5&LLJ6 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 






•W 2 1884 



«f» 



ANATOMY, 



PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE: 



FOR THE USB OF 



COLLEGES, SCHOOLS, AND GENERAL READERS. 



•* 



JEROME WALKER, M.D., 

Lecturer upon Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene at the Central School, 
Brooklyn, and upon Diseases of Children, at the Long Island College 
Hospital; Physician to the Brooklyn Society for the Prevention 
of Cruelty to Children; Consulting Physician to the Keith 
Prtvate Home for Nervous Diseases ; and Senior Physi- 
cian to the Sea-Side Home for Children, 
Coney Island. 



\1/ 



With Original and Carefully Selected Illustrations. 



NEW YORK: 

LOVELL & CO. 

1884. 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by 

A. LOVELL & CO., 
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington. 



J, S. Cus'ning <$> Co., Printers, 115 High Street, Boston. 



PEEFAOE. 



THE following pages are based upon the author's lectures in the 
public schools of Brooklyn for the last eight years. Both as a 
physician in active practice and as a teacher, he has been impressed 
with the importance of truthful anatomical pictures as educators ; and 
of the folly, on the one hand, of omitting in our text-books important 
points ; or, on the other, of overloading the mind with a mass of tech- 
nical material, which is of little value to the ordinary student. For 
that matter, it is assumed throughout the work that the time has gone 
by when students are to be compelled to study the natural sciences 
by committing to memory page after page of text-books. In the 
preparation of the book the active co-operation of men distinguished 
in special lines of work has been obtained. The kind of type and 
the color of the paper were selected under the advice of the well- 
known physician and oculist, Dr. C. R. Agnew, of New York. 
Dr. L. C. Gray, Professor of Mental and Nervous Diseases in the 
New York Polyclinic Medical School, and Dr. J. C. Shaw, Superinten- 
dent of the King's County Insane Asylum, have carefully reviewed 
the manuscript and proof of the chapters on the Nervous System. 
In like manner, Dr. A. Mathewson, Ophthalmic Surgeon to St. John's 
Hospital, and the Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital, etc., has reviewed 
the chapters on Sight and Hearing. Dr. E. H. Bartley, Analytical 
Chemist to the Department of Health of the city of Brooklyn, and 
Lecturer on Chemistry at the Long Island College Hospital, has 
examined that portion of Chapter X. which relates to water; Dr. T. 
R. French, Consulting Laryngoscopic Surgeon to St. Mary's Hospital, 
etc., and Dr. S. Sherwell, Physician to the Throat Department of the 
Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital, have reviewed the manuscript and 
proof of the chapter on the Voice ; and Dr. J. H. H. Burge, Surgeon 



IV PREFACE. 

to the Long Island Hospital, has reviewed the manuscript and proof 
of the chapter on Emergencies. In addition to this public recogni- 
tion of the services of the above-named gentlemen, thanks are also 
due to Dr. A. N. Bell, the well-known editor of The Sanitarian, for 
the use of his choice library of sanitary works, and for many valu- 
able suggestions and criticisms ; also to Dr. J. H. Hunt, for assistance 
in microscopic work, and to Dr. B. F. Westbrook, Chief of the Depart- 
ment of the Throat and Chest of St. Mary's Hospital, Brooklyn, for 
an original illustration and for valuable suggestions. 

The book is believed to be a fair exponent of present physiological 
and hygienic knowledge. Throughout its pages the lessons of moder- 
ation are taught in connection with the use of each part of the 
body. The subjects of food, and of the relations of the skin to 
the various parts of the body and to health, are more thoroughly 
treated of than is ordinarily the case in such works. In regard to 
Stimulants and Narcotics, the main facts have been given. Care has 
been exerted to have all chapters reliable, not even omitting the one 
on Emergencies, which is often slighted in our text-books, thereby 
causing the directions given for the relief of the injured too frequently 
to be misleading. Figures 15, 21, 23, 24, 25, 32, 41, 44, 45, 47, 54, 
64, and 66, were designed by the author, while the remainder of the 
illustrations are from Sappey's Descriptive Anatomy and other reliable 
sources, and are in the main new to text-books of this kind. It will 
be well for the teacher to see that the more important points stated 
in the Introduction, especially those relating to technical terms and 
certain processes, are comprehended by the pupil before entering upon 
the study of- the text. 

J. W. 

Brooklyn, May 7, 1884. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER. PAGE. 

Introduction vii 

I. Bones and Joints . 1 

II. The Skeleton 11 

III. Muscles and Fat 19 

IV. Muscular Exercise . 34 

V. The Skin . . . . . . . . .43 

VI. Bathing 54 

VII. Clothing 62 

VIII. Digestion. — The Conversion of Food into Tissues 76 

IX. Food. — Dietetics 104 

X. Foods. — Alcoholic Stimulants .... 128 

XT. The Circulation. — Blood. — Lymph . . .153 

XII. Respiration. — Animal Heat 180 

XIII. Air. — Disinfection. — Light 200 

XIV. The Nervous System 223 

XV. Nervous System, continued. — Nerve Force . . 247 

XVI. Sensations. — The Senses : Touch, Taste, and 

Smell 257 

XVII. Sight 270 

XVIII. Hearing . . . . . . . . .292 

XIX. The Voice 304 

XX. Emergencies . 319 

Appendix Notes 353 

Referred to in the text by letters (a) (6) , and meant to amplify, 
mainly in the language of others, important subjects treated of 
in the various chapters. 



INTKODITCTIOISr. 



1. The studj' now to be pursued is primarily that of Health. 
It includes a consideration of Human Physiology, or the science 
which teaches us how, in a physical point of view, "we live, 
and move, and have our being " ; and under that head, of Human 
Anatomy, or the description of the location and structure of 
the various parts of the human body ; and also of Hygiene, that 
is, the science and art of the preservation of health. 1 Wherever 
people have correct ideas as to the requirements of health, and 
make intelligent efforts to obey health laws, sickness is com- 
paratively rare, and the very best work, both plrysical and 
mental, is accomplished. Not only does the individual help 
himself to progress and also those about him, but the community 
at large is benefitted, so that "public health is public wealth." 

2. The human body, like that of the lower animals, begins 
in a microscopic cell, and passes through the various stages 
of birth, growth, development, decline, and death. The capa- 

1 The word Anatomy is derived from the Greek (avaTo/xri) , and signifies the 
act of cutting up, or dissection. Anatomical knowledge has been obtained by 
the dissection of bodies of the animal kingdom. The study of the general 
appearance and mutual relations of the bones, muscles, nerves, blood-vessels, 
and other parts, is sometimes called " general" or " gross anatomy," to distin- 
guish it from the study, by means of the microscope, of " minute anatomy," 
i.e., Histology. 

The word Physiology is derived from the Greek (<pv<noAoyia), and signifies 
literally a talk about Xature. It is now confined to a description of "the 
phenomena the aggregate of which constitutes life." Physiological knowledge 
has been obtained by closely observing the actions of the various parts of 
living bodies in a state of health, and by means of operations upon living 
animals, that is, vivisection. 

The word Hygiene, from a Greek word (vyieia), health, refers particularly 
to the health of man, both individually and in relation to the community. 
The application of health laws to individuals is known as '•' individual hygiene," 
and to communities as " public hygiene," sanitation, or "preventive medicine." 



Vlll INTRODUCTION. 

cit}' for development we possess, especially of the brain, is a 
marked distinction between man and other living organisms. 
In nothing do they all resemble each other so much as in their 
birth, decline, and death. There is in every portion of our 
bodies a final tendency to degeneration and death. In propor- 
tion to the care we take of our health is that degeneration slow 
and gradual. 

3. The Chemist tells us that the body is composed of fourteen 
chemical elements, and that these and the substances which 
enter the body as food give rise to certain chemical processes, 
such as the conversion of starch into sugar, and the production 
of carbonic acid gas. 

The Anatomist speaks of the body as composed of organs, i.e., 
portions which have specific duties or functions. Thus the eyes 
are organs of sight, and the muscles organs of motion. He 
refers to the location, general structure, and mutual relations of 
these organs. He groups together those which have a similar 
texture into a system, — for example, the nervous system or the 
muscular s}^stem ; and those which have a similar function 
under .the head of an apparatus, — for example, the digestive 
apparatus. The processes with which his study is mainly 
concerned are largely mechanical, and are therefore sometimes 
called mechanical processes, — such as the comminution and 
grinding of the food in the mouth to fit it for swallowing ; the 
motion of the muscles of the stomach in the digestion of food, 
and of other muscles in locomotion. 

4. The Physiologist, on the contrary, looks upon all the 
processes which are carried on in the body as essentially vital 
processes, though the term is often limited to the circulation of 
the blood, breathing, and digestion. For all processes are 
alone made possible by means of a pervading influence called 
life, and through them life is maintained, and this "inherent 
power " enables the living body to assert its needs through its 
various parts. Thus, if it needs nourishment, it calls for it 
through the stomach by means of the ' ' sensation of hunger " ; 



INTRODUCTION. IX 

when it needs air, the lungs make known a " desire for 
breathing." If the strength of the vital influence is diminished, 
impaired health results. If it ceases, what we call death follows. 
Thus there is death of a part, i.e., local death, and death of the 
entire bod}*, or general death. So intimately are the parts of 
the body, especially the internal organs, related to each other, 
that if one weakens or dies, others are liable to do likewise. 
This chain of vital connections constitutes the so-called " circle 
of life." 

What is true of the entire body as to birth, growth, develop- 
ment, decline, and death, is also true, to a large extent, of each 
part, and of its structural elements. 

5. Each individual part consists largely of bodies microscopic 
in size called cells, from the Latin cella, a closet or store- 
room. 1 Their shape is more or less round, circular, fusiform, 
or stellate, depending on the structure in which they may be. 
Living cells are masses of contractile, jelly-like material called 
protoplasm, 2 which contains "at some period a smaller structure 
called the nucleus." This protoplasm possesses the vital prop- 
erty of altering its form. This power ma}* be lost from too 
active stimulation or other causes. Besides the alteration in 
shape, some cells, like the amoeba? have the power of loco- 
motion by the protrusion and retraction of various portions of 
the protoplasmic mass. Movements of that sort are therefore 
known as the amoeboid movements. 4 Such movements are said 
to be especially characteristic of recently-formed or young cells, 
such as the white cells of the blood, lymph corpuscles, etc., and 
enable them at times to pass into tissues to which they do not 
belong, when the}* are called emigrant or migratory cells, and 

1 "The cells range from the red blood cell (yoVo inch) to the ganglion cell 
(sioinch)." 

2 From the Greek, protos, first, plasma, material. It is also called bioplasm, 
i.e., life material. 

3 Simply constructed, minute animals. 

4 " The amoeboid movement enables many of the lower animals to capture 
their prey, which they accomplish by simply flowing round and enclosing it." — 
Kirke. 



X INTRODUCTION. 

may be the cause of disorder and disease. Certain cells, such 
as those in some portions of the respiratory passages, have a 
peculiar motion known as ciliaiy motion or action, due to the 
vibration of ciliae, 1 or microscopic hair-like filaments projecting 
from the cells. All cells are capable of producing cells like 
themselves. This process is known as cell reproduction or 
proliferation. The whole process involved in the formation and 
birth of a cell occupies, it is believed, but a few minutes of time, 
while the entire life of cells is probably measured by days. 

6. Hence there is constant molecular death in the body, and 
the components of the body, instead of completely changing 
but once in seven years, as was once taught, are undergoing 
such constant change that most of them are renewed many times 
in that period. The brief existence of cells is brought to an 
end principally b} T mechanical abrasion and chemical transfor- 
mation. The first mode occurs in the mouth and digestive tract ; 
for example, when the cells covering the lining of these parts 
are rubbed off by the movements of the parts and b} r whatever is 
in contact with them. The second mode is seen in the fatty, 
pigmentary, and calcareous deposits which occur in certain 
parts under certain circumstances. 

7. Though cells have but a brief existence, they are busy 
workers while they live. They have the power of absorbing 
material from surrounding cells or from the blood as it reaches 
them ; of transforming the material so absorbed for their own 
use ; of excretion, or the throwing out of waste material ; and in 
some instances of separation from the blood of certain materials 
which in a changed form are afterwards given out as a secretion. 
The power of selection and assimilation is one of the wonders 
of cell life. Each cell in health takes from the blood the mate- 
rial needed for its life. 2 Certain cells elongate and form fibres. 

1 From the Latin, meaning an eyelash. 

2 In disease, certain cells, such as those of the lymph, one of the circulating 
fluids of the body, may convey to other cells, or the latter may themselves take 
up foreign particles. Hair, for example, has been thus produced in the interior 
of the body. 



INTRODUCTION. XI 

8. Cells are connected either by a delicate viscid material 
known as intercellular substance, or by their processes or 
extremities. Through the development, union, and connection 
of cells the various tissues of the body are formed, such as mem- 
branes, the walls of delicate blood-vessels, muscle fibres, and 
nerve matter. These tissues are united in various ways to 
form the organs. 

9. Some membranes, when placed as partitions betw r een two 
fluids or gases, permit them to mingle. This process is known 
as osmosis. The passage of the fluid or gas inwards is endos- 
mosis; outwards, exosmosis. The absorption of a fluid by a 
cell or membrane is imbibition. These vital processes are illus- 
trated either in the changes which occur in the breathed air 
during respiration, or in the transformation of food into blood. 

10. The various tissues of the body may be classified as con- 
nective tissues and active tissues, the latter, muscles, nerves, etc., 
being those by w r hich the activities of the body are performed. 

The connective tissues, as the name implies, connect and hold 
in place the various organs of the body. These tissues are 
either of bone, cartilage, or fat, or of gelatinous, elastic, or 
fibrous material. Their chief function is that of support. Deli- 
cate connective tissues so closely cover, or is so interwoven with 
all the textures of the body, that if all the other tissue could be 
removed and the connective only be left in normal position, 
we should have an almost exact model of nearly every organ 
in the body, even to its minutest structure. What connective 
tissue is will be best understood if we compare it with that of 
an orange after the juice has been sucked out. The frame- 
work alone is left, and this framework is the connective tissue. 
As motion is necessary to life, it will be appreciated how thick- 
ening of the connective tissue, which sometimes results from 
disease, will impair the motion and consequent health of parts. 

11. Before entering upon the study of individual tissues and 
organs, their structure, function, and the best methods of 
preserving their health, attention should be called to our method 



Xll INTRODUCTION. 

of study. It is deemed advisable to begin with the bony skele- 
ton, then to study the tissues which overlie it, then those that 
are within it, and finally to show how all the parts may act in 
harmony by means of the brain, nerves, and the special senses. 
The following groups of tissues and fluids of the body are in 
the main as arranged by the distinguished teacher of Anatomy 
and Physiology, Prof. C. L. Ford. 

TISSUES OF THE BODY. 

1. Osseous — Bones and teeth. 

2. Cartilaginous — Pure cartilage and fibro-cartilage. 

3. Fibrous — White and yellow, i.e., the firm and strong, to bind parts 

together, and the elastic to afford elasticity and freedom of movement. 

4. Muscular — Striated or voluntary muscles, and non-striated or involun- 

tary. 

5. Adipose — Eat cells and enclosed fat. 

6. Epithelial — Epithelium, epidermis, hair, and nails. 

7. Nervous — Cerebro-spinal and sympathetic. 

FLUIDS OF THE BODY. 

1. Circulating Fluids — Chyle, lymph, blood. 

2. Fluids for Digestion — Saliva, gastric secretion, pancreatic fluid, bile, 

intestinal juice. 

3. Fluids of Closed Cavities — Of the arachnoid, pleural, pericardial, and 

peritoneal sacs, of joints, of the eye, and ear, and of cells. 

4. Secretions for Protection — Cerumen or wax, tears, fluid of mucous 

membranes, oily fluids on the surface of body. 

5. Fluids for Discharge — Intestinal secretion, renal or kidney secretion, 

perspiration, vapor from the lungs, etc. 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, 

AND 

HYGIENE. 



FLAT BONES OF THE SKULL. 



NASAL BONES"" 



-MALAR (CHEEK) BONE. 
•SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES 
MFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE 
SPINAL COLUMN. CERVICAL REGION. 

;^§j^-_U==^-C\.AVICLE (collar bone) 



SHOULDER BLADE - 




CHAPTER I. 
BONES AND JOINTS. 

1. The general figure and stability of the human body- 
are maintained by the bones. Of these the framework or 
skeleton is constructed. This framework encloses cavities 
for the lodgement and protection of the vital organs. It 
has joints to facilitate motion, and surfaces for the attach- 
ment and support of the softer parts of the bodj^. 

In the entire skeleton of an adult there are 204 distinct 
bones. 1 The relations of these to each other are shown in 
Fig. 1. 

2. All bones vary in form, and though they are more 
or less irregular, t\iQj may be considered as Long, Short, 
and Flat. 2 

1 Bones of the spinal column 26 

The cranium (skull) 8 

The ears 6 

The face 14 

Ribs, hyoid bone, and breast bone 26 

The upper extremities 64 

The lower extremities .60 

Total 204 

This enumeration does not include the patellae (knee pans) or other sesa- 
moid bones, — i.e., bones having the form of seed. These are situated in the 
tendons or strings of certain muscles, where unusual pressure is exerted by 
the gliding movements of the tendons. Neither does it include the 32 teeth 
nor certain supernumerary bones, called Wormian bones, which are some- 
times found in incomplete joints of the skull. Teeth are sometimes spoken of 
as composed of bony or osseous tissue, but they "differ from bone in structure, 
development, and mode of growth." 

2 Examples of the more irregular bones are the vertebrae, and some of the 
bones of the skull. These last are the temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, superior 
maxillary (upper jaw), inferior maxillary (lower jaw), the palate bones in the 
roof of the mouth, the inferior turbinated bones in the nose, 



Z BONES AND JOINTS. 

The long bones are hollow shafts with two extremities, 
called heads, which are generally expanded, the better to 
form joints and to afford increased surface for the attach- 
ment of muscles and ligaments. (Fig. 1, right leg.) " They 
represent columns for supporting the weight of the body, 
or levers of different kinds for the muscles to act upon." 
The long bones are the clavicle (collar bone), the humerus 
(arm bone), the radius and ulna (forearm bones), the 
femur (thigh bone), the tibia and fibula (leg bones), and 
some of the bones of the hands and feet. 

3. The short bones are located in those parts of the 
body where strength, compactness, and elasticity are re- 
quired. They are strongly bound together by ligaments. 
Examples of short bones are found in the wrist and ankle. 

4. The flat bones afford broad surfaces for muscular 
attachment, and serve to protect important organs. They 
are the shoulder blades, breast bone, ribs, hip bones, and 
some of the bones of the skull. 

5. The structure of bones is as follows: — 

On the surfaces of bones are various eminences 1 and 
depressions. 2 The first afford attachment for muscles, 
tendons, and connective tissue ; the latter, safe and con- 
venient passages for blood-vessels, nerves, tendons, and 
muscles. Through the surfaces of the bones are openings 
for the passage of blood-vessels, nerves, etc. These open- 
ings are especially numerous at the extremities of long 
bones. 

6. All bones are enveloped in a firm vascular 3 mem- 
brane (the periosteum'), except on the surfaces of joints, 
where they are overlaid with a smooth, elastic tissue known 

1 Tuberosities, tubercles, spines, and ridges. 
2 Grooves, furrows, fissures, and notches. 3 i.e., full of blood-vessels. 



BONES AND JOINTS. 



as cartilage. The periosteum clings closely to the bone and 
nourishes it, and is capable, with the aid of the surround- 
ing soft tissues, of producing 
new bone to replace that re- 
moved by disease or surgical 
operations. 1 

7. If a bone be sawn across, 

its walls will be found to be 

very hard and strong, like 

ivory. This firm tissue is 

called the compact tissue. In 

a long bone it is thicker in 

the middle of the shaft than 

at the extremities, where it 

disappears in a fine net-work 

tissue, called the spongy or 

cancellous tissue. The size 

of the bone along the shaft, 

where strength is mainly re- 
quired, is thus diminished; 

while at the ends the extent 

of surface which is needed is 

obtained without increase of 

weight. The more expanded 

and elastic spongy tissue 

serves, too, both at the ex- 
tremities of the long bones and in the interior of the other 
bones, to deaden the force of concussions. It is ordinarily 
filled with the oily material known as marroiv, which also 
fills the hollow shaft or tube of the long bones. This tube 



of 



Fig. 2. 
Posterior view- 
femur, showing 
the ridges, de- 
pressions, and 
openings. 



Fig. 3. 
Longitudinal section 
of femur, showing 
the compact and 
cancellous tissue 
of bone. 



1 Hence the surgeon, in removing dead bone, removes as little of the perios- 
teum as possible, and thus has succeeded, with the aid of nature, in producing 
new lower jaws, and even arm bones. 



4 BONES AND JOINTS. 

or central canal is therefore called the medullary canal 
(i.e., marrow canal). It is lined by a vascular web of 
connective tissue known as the endostium or medullary 
membrane, which nourishes the inner parts of the bone. 

8. Bones are composed of animal matter, mostly gela- 
tine, and mineral matter ("bone earth"), chiefly calcium 
phosphate. 1 The animal matter, in combination, renders 
bones tough and elastic, enabling them to bear without 
injury ordinary shocks, while the mineral matter makes 
them hard and rigid, and capable of sustaining weights and 
strains without change of shape. Prof. Robinson found 
that a piece of bone one inch square bore a weight of five 
thousand pounds without breaking. 2 

9. In youth, the animal matter constitutes more than 
one-third of the bone substance; and hence the bones of 
children are more elastic than those of adults, and are less 
liable to be broken. As the child grows, the bones be- 
come stronger — being adapted to the increasing muscular 
strength. In adult life, mineral matter constitutes two- 
thirds of the bone substance. The bones are then very 
strong, though retaining considerable elasticity. In old age, 
the bones become very brittle from an excess of mineral 



1 If a bone be immersed in a dilute acid (as muriatic, for instance), for a 
sufficient time, tbe mineral matter will be dissolved, while the animal matter 
will remain in the perfect shape of the bone, which may now be bent, or even 
tied in a knot. If a bone be exposed to the action of fire, the animal matter 
will be burned out, and the substance remaining in the shape of the bone will 
crumble when touched. 

2 "Bone has been found by experiment to possess twice the resisting prop- 
erty of solid oak. It is also elastic, as is shown by the resiliency of the fibula 
when its shaft is pressed against its tibia ; and by Mr. Ward's experiment of 
placing the clavicle at right angles against a hard body, and striking the free 
end a smart blow with a hammer, when the bone will rebound a distance of 
two feet." — Treatise on the Skeleton : G. M. Humphrey, Esq., M. B. Cantab. 
F.R.C.S. 



BONES AND JOINTS. 5 

matter, and are liable to break from slight causes. An 
aged person, incautiously stepping from even a foot-stool 
or curb-stone, may break his thigh bone. 

10. Sometimes bones become brittle as the result of 
disease. On the other hand, the bones of young children, 
whose food is deficient in mineral elements, may contain 
but one-fifth of mineral matter, and be rendered so soft 
and flexible as to be readily distorted by muscular contrac- 
tion and by weights which they should normally sustain. 
This diseased condition is known as rickets. 1 

11. The nutrition of bones during life renders them very 
different from those of the dried skeleton. Living bones 
are well supplied with blood through the blood-vessels 
of the periosteum and enclostium. 2 Even the compact 
tissue, solid as it appears to the eye, under the microscope 
is found to contain numerous vascular canals. The larger 
of these run lengthwise with the bones, and are connected 
with each other and with the periosteum and endostium 
by transverse and slightly oblique canals, in the course of 
which are enlargements or small reservoirs. 3 In addition 
to blood-vessels, there are found in bones nerves, and, ac- 

1 In very early life bones are soft and cartilaginous. Gradually they be- 
come harder, as food supplies the necessary phosphatic salts. Finally, carti- 
lage is replaced by bone. If, during the growth and development of children, 
proper food is not supplied, various deformities may result. 

2 Students are apt to judge of bones in the body by the dried specimens in 
lecture-rooms and museums, but they are as much unlike as the green and 
dead twigs of a tree. 

A bone of an animal recently killed will be found to have a pinkish hue, 
due to the blood it contains. 

If madder be mixed with the food of an animal, its coloring matter passes 
into the blood, and after a short time the bones become red. If the madder be 
given on alternate days, the bones will be marked alternately red and white. 

3 The longitudinal canals are called Haversian canals, from Clopton 
Havers, their discoverer; the transverse canals, canaliculi; the reservoirs, 
lacunae. The Haversian canals, the canaliculi, and the lacunae together, con- 
stitute the Haversian system of canals. 



BONES AND JOINTS. 

cording to some authorities, lymphatics. 1 They are there- 
fore nourished by the same means that other and softer 
tissues are, and like them have the power of selecting 
from the blood, and appropriating to their own structure, 
the substances needed for their growth and development. 
This process is known as assimilation. 




Fig. 4. 

Longitudinal canals in compact 
tissue of bones, with their con- 
necting canaliculi and the lacu- 
nae. Magnified 200 diameters. 



Fig. 5. 

Transverse section of compact tissue of 
bones, showing openings of longitudinal 
canals, the canaliculi and lacunae. Mag- 
nified 200 diameters. The fine lines are 
canaliculi ; the dark spots lacunae. 



12. Joints. — The junction of two or more bones con- 
stitutes a joint, or, more technically, an articulation. Joints 
are classified as immovable, mixed, and movable. The joints 
of the cranial bones, 2 called sutures or dove-tail joints, are 



1 Lymphatics are vessels that carry lymph (§ 249) . The nerves of bone 
are few in number, so that bones are generally but slightly sensitive. But, 
when inflamed, they become acutely sensitive, the nerves being pressed upon 
in their bony canals by the products of inflammation. 

2 Skull. See Fig. 6. 



BONES AND JOINTS. 7 

immovable ; those of the vertebrae 1 are mixed. Most of 
the other joints of the body are movable. The varieties of 
these are the ball and socket joints, of which the shoulder 
and hip are examples ; and hinge joints, to which class the 
knee and elbow belong. 

13. The skull rests and nods upon the first vertebra 
or the atlas, and also upon a tooth-like process of the axis, 




Fig. 6. 
Suture joints of the skull. 



Fig. 7. 
Hip joint (ball and socket). 



or second bone of the spinal column, which projects 
upwards through a hole in the atlas and forms a pivot or 
swivel upon which the head rotates, or turns from side 
to side, the atlas also turning with it. 

14. The articular surfaces of bones, or surfaces where 
the joints are, are always protected from friction by shields 



1 Bones of spinal column. 



8 BONES AND JOINTS. 

of cartilage (articular cartilages), and in the movable joints 
by the synovial 1 membranes which line their cavities, and 
which secrete 2 and pour into the joints as it is needed a 
lubricating substance called the synovial fluid. The elas- 




Fig. 8. 

The Atlas. 1, opening for spinal cord ; 3-3, transverse ligament, enclosing 
with the bone an opening for part of axis to pass up through ; 7-7, resting 
places for prominences on skull. 

ticity of these cartilages serves to diminish shocks from 
walking, running, jumping, etc., thus protecting the deli-, 
cate structures of the body from injuries which would 
otherwise result. 




Fig. 9. 

Atlas and Axis in position. 10, projection of axis, passing through the atlas, 
upon which the skull rests. 

15. The bones are held together by strong bands of 
fibrous connective tissue, called ligaments. Their connec- 
tion is further strengthened by muscles and tendons, and 

1 So called from the synovia or adhesive fluid within it. 

2 Secretion is the separation from the blood of certain specific materials, 
and their storage in secreting glands or reservoirs for special use. 



BONES AND JOINTS. 



9 



also, in some degree, by the enveloping fat and skin. The 
accompanying figure represents the structure of joints. 




Fe 



CaL 



Fig. 10. 
Longitudinal section of knee-joint, showing the relation of the structures which enter 
into its composition. T, tendon; SS, synovial sac; Fe, femur; P, patella or 
knee pan; L, ligament of patella; F, fat; T i, tibia; Ca L, capsular or enveloping 
ligament; CrL, crucial or cross-shaped ligament between the ends of the femur 
and tibia. 




A Fig. II. B 

A. Longitudinal section of wrist joints, showing the synovial sacs and membranes 
(see SS). B. Ligaments of wrist joint (see L). 

16. A dislocation is a "bone out of joint." Certain 
joints — those of the shoulder, wrist, and fingers, for example 
— are more liable to dislocation than others. Some healthy, 
well-developed persons are able to dislocate partially their 
joints at will, — even the hip, knee, and elbow joints. 



10 BONES AND JOINTS. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Of what use are bones ? 

2. -How many are there in the body, and how may they be classified ? 

3. Describe the long bones, and explain the use of their length. 

4. Where are the short bones located ? 

5. What is the special use of flat bones ? 

6. Why are there eminences, and why depressions, upon bones ; and 

why openings through them? 

7. What is the periosteum, and of what use is it ? the cartilage ? 

8. Of what kinds of tissue are bones constructed? Describe them 

and their respective uses. 

9. What and where is the marrow? the medullary canal? the 

endostium? 

10. Of what are bones composed ? 

11. Of what different uses are the animal and mineral matter of bones? 

12. What diverse effects may either have upon the bones, and why? 

13. How do the bones of the young and old differ ? 

14. How are bones nourished, and what do they contain ? 

15. What is meant by assimilation ? 

16. What is a joint or articulation, and how are joints classified? 

17. How are the nodding and rotating motions of the head effected? 

18. What protects the joints from friction? 

19. How is the liability of the delicate structures of the body to injury 

from shocks in jumping, etc., diminished ? 

20. How are the bones held together, and what is a dislocation ? 



i 



CHAPTER II. 

THE BONY FRAMEWORK, OR 
SKELETONS 

17. The skeleton is beautifully adapted to support 
weight. 2 It affords surfaces for the attachment of muscles, 
and thus facilitates the movements of the body. Within 
it are the delicate vital organs. 

18. The main support of the body 3 is the spinal or 
vertebral column.^ (Fig. 1.) It serves not only to bear 
the weight of the upper part of the body, but maintains it 
in proper relation with the lower part. Its lower end fits 
in like a wedge between the hip bones, and unites with 
them to form the pelvis. The spinal column is composed 
of 26 bones, 24 of which are vertebrae. 5 



1 The skeleton of man is an internal or endo-skeleton ; that of the oyster or 
lobster an external or exo-skeleton. The turtle has both an internal and 
external framework. The sturgeon, besides an endo-skeleton, has an irregular 
outer case of superficial bony plates (dermo-skeleton), which enables the fish 
to swim more safely in search of food among rocks and debris. 

2 At 21 years of age the weight of the human skeleton is about one-tenth 
that of the entire body. It averages about 15 lbs., yet is capable of sustaining 
great weights, and can at times be subjected to great strains without injury. 
Dr. Winship, the celebrated athlete, though a small man, could lift a weight 
of 2500 lbs. 

3 The entire body consists of the head, body or trunk, and the limbs or 
extremities. 

4 It is commonly called the back-bone, as though it were but one bone. 

5 In the neck, or "cervical" region, there are seven bones or vertebrae; in 
the back, or "dorsal" region, twelve; and in the loin, or "lumbar" region, 
five. The sacrum and coccyx are sometimes called false vertebrae, for in very 
early life the first is composed of five rudimentary vertebrae and the second 
of four. Hence, the number of bones in the spinal column is sometimes 
stated as 33. 



12 



THE BONY FRAMEWORK, OR SKELETON. 



SCa 



D C — 



19. Each vertebra 1 is composed 
of a disk-like body, with a bony 
arch projecting backwards from it, 
and is tunnelled by a large opening 
through it, extending up and down, 
or longitudinally with the body. 
The vertebrae are united by strong 
ligaments, and are so placed that 
the openings through the several 
vertebrae form one long tube or tun- 
nel, called the spinal canal, which 
serves for the lodgement and protec- 
tion of the spinal cord. 2 To and 
from this nerves pass, through 
notched apertures in the sides of 
the various vertebral arches. The 
posterior projections (spines) of the 
arches form the ridge which may be 
felt extending along the middle of 
the back. To diminish the shock 
of jars and falls, there are, between 
the vertebrae, cushions of very elas- 
tic cartilage. 



Fig | 2 20. The vertebral column has four 

L 2fi^5 , M3SS *»w«, — the cervical, dorsal, lum- 

?a?cur°vTf S c c" e accnxPcuwe; bar, and pelvic. Two are forward 

fng a for P ^^,S£tio P n e ^ curves, and two backward. These 

lZ^TctcZ% ages '' S) are so nicely adjusted that their 



se-. 




1 These bones are called vertebrae, from the Latin vertere, to turn, because 
they turn or rotate, and also at times incline to a certain extent, in the varied 
movements of the body. 

2 A cord-like arrangement of nerves (that is, many strands of nerves united 
together in one cord) which connect the brain with other parts of the body, by 
means of branches sent out through the spinal openings mentioned in the text. 



THE BOXY FRAMEWORK, OR SKELETON. 13 

relative positions are ordinarily maintained, whatever 
the movements of the bod}- may be. Hence, pressure 
is better distributed than would be the case if the 
column were straight. Still, jumping from a height 
upon a resisting surface, heavy blows or falls, and the 
prolonged and excessive action of special muscles or 
groups of muscles, frequently produce spinal deformities 
and disease. 1 

21. Branching out from each side of the spinal column, 
in the dorsal region, are the twelve ribs, which are grooved 
underneath for the passage of blood-vessels and nerves to 
the front of the body. The ribs slope downward and 
outward, and, with the dorsal vertebrae and breast bone, 
form the bony walls of the thorax or chest. This arrange- 
ment and the elasticity of the cartilages, which unite 
most of the ribs to the breast bone, permit considerable 
enlargement of the chest cavity in the process of breath- 
ing. 2 Free movements of the chest walls are necessary 
for the health and proper action of the organs within 
them. 

22. The pelvis consists of the sacrum and coccyx 
behind, the hip bones (innominate bones) upon the sides, 
and the pubic bone in front. By its size, strength, curves, 
and expanded upper edges (hips), it is well adapted to 



1 Spinal curvatures are liable to result from habitual sitting, standing, and 
even lying in wrong positions. The habit of bending over to study, write, or 
use the sewing-machine is injurious. When standing, the body should be 
erect, the shoulders held back in an easy, comfortable manner. When sitting, 
the body or head should be bent but slightly forward. Constrained positions 
are always injurious. 

2 The seven upper ribs upon each side are called true ribs, because they are 
joined to the breast-bone directly by cartilages; the other five are called false 
ribs, because not so joined, — the two upper being fastened by cartilage to the 
cartilages of other ribs, while the three lower, which are called " floating ribs," 
have no cartilages, their anterior ends being free and floating as it were. 



14 THE BONY FRAMEWORK, OR SKELETON. 

support and protect the organs within it. It also assists 
in supporting the upper part of the body, by its relation 
to the spinal column and the attachment it affords for the 
powerful muscles of the trunk. Articulating (that is, 
forming joints) with the pelvis are the two thigh bones. 
These are supported by the bones of the legs, which rest 
upon those of the feet. 

23. The bones of the feet are arranged in the form of 
an arch, the forward part of the foot and the heel only 
resting upon the ground. This arched form secures much 




Fig. 13. 
Bones of the foot and their relative location. 

elasticity, and diminishes the shocks to other parts, in the 
acts of running, walking, and jumping. It also affords a 
more secure footing in walking and running over uneven 
ground, in climbing ladders, etc. 

24. Joined to the trunk, at its upper and lower por- 
tions, are the limbs or extremities. The bones of each 
upper extremity (the arm and its appendages) are the 
clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, and ulna, and those of 
the wrist and hand. Each upper extremity is so arranged 
that the hand, which assists in giving to man his great 
superiority over the lower animals, may be freely used. 1 

1 The arm bone is longer than the forearm bones, and the forearm bones 
than those of the hand. This arrangement, together with very pliable fingers, 
and with the thumb, which can readily be " opposed " to all the fingers, charac- 
terizes man as distinct from and above all other forms of animal life. 



THE BONY FRAMEWOEK, OR SKELETON. 



15 



25. The lower extremities (legs and their appendages) 
have a strong resemblance to the upper, but have less 
mobility. The bones of each lower extremity are the 
femur, tibia, fibula, knee-pan, and the bones of the ankle 
and toes. 




Fig. 14. 
Front view of the contents of the cavities of the chest and abdomen. B, trachea; 
C, oesophagus; E, diaphragm; F, liver; I, spleen; D, stomach; O, intestines; 
H, heart; A, lungs; J, bladder. 

26. There are three principal closed cavities within the 
skeleton : viz., the cranial, thoracic, and pelvic cavities. 1 



1 In addition to these cavities, and the marrow cavities of long bones, there 
are cavities which contain air, — such as the "frontal sinuses" in the frontal 
bones of the skull, which open into the upper part of the nose; the antrum, in 
each half of the upper jaw; and the sphenoidal and ethmoidal sinuses, in the 
sphenoid and ethmoid bones, etc. These reservoirs of air are concerned in 
the processes of breathing and the production of voice, and serve to lighten 
the weight of bones. 



16 



THE BOXY FRAMEWORK, OR, SKELETON. 




Fig. 15. 
Side view of the head and trunk; 
the hones and soft coverings of the 
cavities heing removed, and the 
face, throat, and spinal column 
eiven in longitudinal sections. 
The organs are in relief. A, lungs ; 
B, trachea ; C, oesophagus ; D, 
stomach ; E, diaphragm ; F, a 
email portion of the liver; G, in- 
testines ; II, heart ; I, spleen ; 
J, hladder. 



27. The cranium, or skull, is 
a rounded bony box, admirably 
constructed for its particular 
use. 1 It has a vaulted dome, 
side walls, and very strong but- 
tresses in the temporal bones 
which enclose the delicate organs 
of hearing. The base is formed 
of bones strongly wedged in to- 
gether, with openings so arranged 
that the delicate blood-vessels and 
nerves passing through them are 
not easily injured. Within the 
cranial cavity are the brain and 
the commencement of the spinal 
cord, and also nerves and blood- 
vessels. 

28. The thoracic cavity ex- 
tends from the base of the 
neck above to the diaphragm 2 
below, and from the spinal 
column and ribs behind to the 
breast bone and the cartilages 
of the ribs in front. It con- 
tains the lungs, heart, some 
large blood-vessels, nerves, the 
thoracic duct, and oesophagus or 
gullet. 3 



1 The tissue of the flat hones, of which it is composed, is arranged in layers 
or "tahles." On account of their character, these were hy the Ancients 
likened, the outer one to wood, the middle one to leather, and the inner one to 
glass (from its smoothness). 

2 A strong muscular and tendinous partition dividing the thoracic from the 
ahdominal cavity. (See Fig. 14.) 

8 The lungs fill the larger part of the cavity. 



THE BOXY FRAMEWORK, OR SKELETON. 1< 

29. The pelvic cavity is the space enclosed by the 
pelvic bones. 1 There is a fourth cavity, the abdominal 
cavity, which is partly enclosed by bony walls and in part 
by muscles. It is located between the thoracic and pelvic 
cavities, and contains the liver upon the right side, the 
stomach and spleen on the left, the intestines in front, and 
the pancreas, kidneys, receptacle for chyle, and very large 
blood-vessels and nerves behind. 



QUESTIONS. 



1. Of what service is the skeleton 



2. AVhat is the main support of the skeleton, and its use ? 

3. How is the spinal column fitted to the hip bones, and of what 

does it consist? 

4. Describe the vertebrae, and how they are separated from each 

other, and why. 

5. How is the spinal canal formed, and what is its object ? 

6. How do the nerves of the body reach it ? 

7. What curves has the spinal column, and what is their object? 

8. Describe the ribs, and explain the object of their downward slope. 

9. Of what bones does the pelvis consist, and what is its use ? 

10. Describe the lower portion of the skeleton. 

11. How are the bones of the feet arranged, and why? 

12. Of what bones does each upper extremity or arm consist, and 

what is the object of their arrangement ? 

13. What are the bones of the lower extremities, or of each leg ? 

14. What cavities are in the skeleton ? 

15. Describe the cranium, and mention its contents. 

16. Describe the thoracic cavity, and mention its contents. 

17. What cavity is above the pelvic cavity, and what are its contents ? 

1 Its contents are the bladder aud other viscera. 



18 



ANALYSIS. 



ANALYSIS OF CHAPTERS FIRST AND SECOND. 



BONES. 



" 1. Classes 



2. Structure 



I. Anatomy 



II. Physiology 



III. Hygiene . 



3. Joints 



Cavities 



1. Uses 



2. Nutrition 



1. Maintenance 
of health . . . 



4. Arrangement 
in skeleton . . 



fLong. 

. { Short. 
[Flat. 

" Compact tissue. 
Spongy tissue. 
Periosteum. 
Endostium. 
Marrow. 
Vascular canals. 
Canaliculi. 
Lacunae. 

f Movable. 
Classes \ Immovable. 

[ Mixed. 
Cartilages. 
Ligaments. 
Synovial sacs. 
Synovial fluid. 

r simii. 

Spinal column. 
Ribs. 

Breast bone. 
I Pelvis. 

" Upper. — Bones of 
shoulder, arms, 
forearm, and 
Extremities < hands. 

Lower. — Bones of 
thighs, legs, and 
[ feet. 
Cranial. 
Thoracic. 
Pelvic. 
Abdominal. 

f Columns of support. 
-{ Act as levers. 

L Enclose cavities. 

f Through blood-vessels. 
■< Through nerves. 

[ Through lymphatics. 

By proper exercise, rest, nour- 
ishment, etc. See especially 
chapters on Food and Foods. 



CHAPTER III. 
MUSCLES AND FAT. 

30. The muscles, about 400 in number, are the direct 
instruments by which the movements of the several parts 
of the body are effected. They are of a deep-red color, 1 and 
constitute what is ordinarily called " flesh," or, in animals, 
"lean meat." They are grouped about the bones, to 
which many of them are attached. They also form a 
part of the walls of many organs, — as the stomach, heart, 
intestines, and blood-vessels. 

31. Muscles have different shapes, and are arranged 
mainly in layers from within outward, occupying always 
the best position to facilitate their action and preserve 
the compactness, usefulness, and beauty of the parts. 
Those of the face are, for the most part, short and 
narrow ; of the cranium, thin and flat ; of the thorax, 
abdomen, and pelvis, broad and flattened ; and of the 
neck and extremities, long and rounded. 

32. The muscles grouped in the above-mentioned lo- 
calities are known as voluntary muscles? because their 
movements are, for the most part, governed by the will. 
The internal muscles of the body are generally thin and 



1 Muscles but little used, as in young children and paralyzed persons, have 
a pale color. In most of the vertebrate animals the flesh is red. In some birds 
and many fishes it is colorless, yellowish, or pink. 

2 Also as "muscles of animal life," or "skeletal" muscles, 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 




'%:■ ■/■■■?■ 1 



A. — Posterior view. 



B. —Front and side view. 



Fig. 16. 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 21 



Fig. 16. 

Muscles of the Body. Superficial 

A. 

E, extensors of the hand. 

B, biceps muscle, flexor of arm and forearm. 

D, deltoid, raises the arm and moves it backwards and forwards. 

TRA, trapezius, draws back and raises shoulder. 

TRI, triceps, extensor of forearm. 

LD, latissimus dorsi, assists in respiration by moving the ribs. 

G-M, gluteus maximus, moves the thigh backward and outwards. 

VE, vastus extemus, extends the leg. 

B, biceps of thigh, flexor of leg. 

Gr, gastrocnemius, extends the foot. 

F, flexors of the foot. 
TA, Tendo Achillis. 



B. 

E, extensors of the hand. 

F, flexors of the hand. 
B, biceps, etc. 

D, deltoid, etc. 

PM, pectoralis major, draws the arm forwards and inwards. 

P, pronator, rotates forearm inwards. 

SH, serratus magnus, assists in respiration. 

RA, rectus abdominis, that makes tense the abdominal walls. 

TF, tensor femoris, that makes tense the connective tissue of thigh, and 

moves the thigh outwards. 
S, sartorms, flexes the leg. 
AD, adductor group of thigh muscles. 

RF, rectus femoris, one of the group of extensor muscles of thigh. 
TA, tibialis anticus, moves foot forwards. 
ET, extensors of the toes. 



22 MUSCLES AND FAT. 

flat, and are involuntary, discharging their functions inde- 
pendently of the will. For instance, the simple presence 
of food in the stomach is sufficient to excite that muscular 
organ into its normal and involuntary activity. 1 

33. Voluntary muscles are connected with bones, and 
also with cartilages, ligaments, skin, and other structures. 
This connection is effected either by muscular tissue, or 
by means of white, firm, glistening masses of fibrous 
tissue, known as tendons, or sinews. 2 The latter are 
flexible and inelastic, and are especially required to serve 
the purpose of connecting bands or cords, where the parts 
of the body to be moved are remote from the moving 
muscles. They thus obviate an unnecessary, ungainly, 
and sometimes impossible prolongation of the muscles, 3 
and conduce to the symmetry and beauty of outline of 
the body. But for this simple adaptation, how bulky 
and ill-proportioned, for example, would be the wrists and 
ankles, through which, instead of the muscles, these slen- 
der cords are made to pass ; and how clumsy the move- 
ments, which by their means are accomplished with such 
efficiency, rapidity, and grace ! (a.) The strongest and 
largest tendon in the body is the " Tendo Achillis," which 



1 By some authorities certain muscles are called mixed muscles, because 
they belong partly to the voluntary and partly to the involuntary classes. 
Such are the muscles of respiration, or breathing. Ordinarily, we breathe 
without exertion of the will, but to a certain extent it is in our power to in- 
crease or suspend the process. "The muscular fibre of the heart presents a 
structure intermediate between the two typical forms." — Manual of Histology, 
Satterthwaite. 

2 This fibrous tissue, in the form of a very resisting membrane, is continu- 
ous with the muscular tissue of some muscles, and envelopes others, preventing 
their displacement. It is then called an aponeurosis, from the belief of the 
ancients that it was a membrane of nervous tissue. 

3 The tendon of one of the muscles which moves the eye passes through a 
loop or pulley. A tendon under the jaw passes through a slit in the tendon of 
another muscle whose direction is different. 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 



23 



connects certain muscles on the back of the leg with the 
heel. 1 Involuntary muscles, for the most part, are not 
attached to bones, but to other structures. 




Fig. 17. — Muscles of Left Hand. Front surface. 

FCTJ, flexor of ulnar side of the wrist; FCR, flexor of radial side of wrist; SH, 
sheath of connective tissue through which the tendons pass ; OP, the opposing 
muscle of thumb; ABP, muscle that draws the thumb outward ; FBP, the 
short flexor of the thumb; ADP, adductor that draws the thumb inwards; 
S of T, sheath of tendon in position, removed from other fingers to show the 
arrangement of tendons ; FS, long, superficial flexor of the fingers; FP, the 
long, deep flexor of the fingers; AMD, that pulls the little finger outward. 

34. Voluntary muscles are made up of bundles of 
fibres. Each fibre is tightly enclosed by a structureless 
membrane, called sarcolemma, which is very elastic, and 



1 So called (the Tendon of Achilles) from the Grecian fiction, that this 
tendon was the only vulnerable portion of the body of Achilles. 

Tendons may be readily felt at the wrists, ankles, the bend of the elbows, 
and under the knees, especially when the muscles are tense. 



24 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 



allows of the free movements of the fibre. The several 
bundles of fibres are surrounded, as is also the entire 




Fig. 18. 

Traverse section of a leg. — B, bone ; C, connective tissue ; F, fat (adipose tissue) ; 

V, veins; M, muscles; BL, blood-vessels (arteries and veins). 

muscle, with connective tissue, holding together the fibres 
in each bundle, and the several bundles into the one 
muscle. 

u Each fibre is divided longitudinally 
into a varying number of what are called 
muscle columns, held together probably 
by a delicate cement." 1 The muscle 
columns are called by some fibrillae (little 
fibres). 

A muscular fibre of a voluntary muscle, 
under the microscope, is shown to have 
alternate dark and light cross stripes, or striae. Hence, 
voluntary muscles are also known as striated, or striped? 

1 Satterthwaite's Histology. Dr. Thomas Dwight. 

2 These transverse stripes are by some authorities believed to be the 
boundary lines of muscle cells in each muscle column, while others believe 




-Fib 



Fig. 19. 

Cross-section of a fibre 

of voluntary muscle, 

magnified.— S, sarco- 

lemma; Fib, fibrillae. 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 



25 



Involuntary muscles are also composed of fibres, but 
these are spindle shaped, and unstriped, and form tissues 
by the interlacing of the fibres. 

35. Muscles are abundantly supplied with blood. Be- 
tween and beneath the muscles are large blood-vessels, 
whose smaller branches pass between the fibres. These 

blood-vessels are accompanied by 
nerves. The nerves of voluntary 
muscles are chiefly motor nerves, 
or those which preside over mo- 
tion, while a great part of those 
of involuntary muscles are sensory 





Fig. 20. 
A portion of a voluntary fibre, 
showing the fibrillae, trans- 
verse striae, and the sarco- 
lemma detached at one point. 
Magnified 250 diameters. 



Fig. 21. 
Non-striated fibres of involuntary muscles, 
somewhat separated from each other for 
microscopic examination. 



nerves, or those which preside over sensation. Fat cells 
are sometimes found amoung muscular fibres. 

36. The fibres of living muscle tissue are composed of a 
translucent jelly-like material, sometimes called muscle 
plasma. Three-fourths of this muscle plasma is water ; 
the remaining fourth is composed of common salt, calcium 



that they represent transverse disks of the width of the fibre: others still, 
believe that the so-called cells and disks are not found during life, but that 
they result from changes after death. 



26 MUSCLES AND FAT. 

phosphate, 1 albuminous material (i.e., like albumen, see 
§159), and extractive matters. 2 The principal ingredient, 
water, gives to muscles their softness and flexibility. 3 

37. Muscles are essentially organs of motion. On ac- 
count of their location and arrangement, they also shield 
blood-vessels, lymphatics, and nerves; serve to diminish 
the force of shocks and blows ; and, in connection with the 
bones, enclose the cavities of the thorax, abdomen, and 
pelvis. By means of muscles the varied and wonderful 
movements of the body are performed, and speech is 
rendered possible. Through the action of muscular fibres 
the heart pulsates, the blood circulates, and respiration, 
digestion, and the other vital processes are carried on. 

38. These muscular movements result from the contrac- 
tility of muscular tissue. This property of shortening and 
thickening their bulk when tense, or in a state of action, 
and of becoming elongated and thinner when relaxed, or 
in a state of rest, is peculiar to muscle fibres, and is some- 
times spoken of as muscular irritability. Contractility is 
normally excited in voluntary muscles by the will acting 
through the nervous system, but it can be called into 
action also, independently of the will, by various kinds of 
stimulation, — such as pinching, pricking with a needle, 

1 Formerly called " phosphate of lime." 

2 Ingredients in 100 parts of muscle plasma : — 

Water 75.00 

Albuminous material 22.00 

Extractive matters 2.55 

Calcium phosphate 25 

Common salt 02 

100.00 
8 Where, in certain diseased conditions, or from overwork, the fluids of the 
body are diminished, certain muscles in motion produce creaking sounds as 
their tendons pass through grooves or canals. As soon as death occurs, muscles 
begin to be rigid. 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 27 

the application of an acid, electricity, etc. In involuntary 
muscles, it ordinarily results from nervous stimulus. 1 Con- 
tractions may be extremely gentle, as when the muscles 
of the eye or hand are engaged in delicate work ; or they 
may be powerful, as in athletic sports or in heavy lifting. 
Prolonged use of muscles, the want of use, a supply of 
poor or insufficient blood, certain poisons, etc., lessen 
their normal irritability. 

39. The respective groups of muscles are named ac- 
cording to the kind of motion produced, their position, 
uses, etc. 2 Muscles that bend the joints are called flexors, 
— as, for example, those on the front of the arm that bend 
the forearm, and on the back of the thigh that bend the 
leg. Those which restore the bent parts to a straight 
condition are extensors. The extensors corresponding to 
the above-mentioned flexors are located, as the necessity 
of the case demands, on the back of the arm and the front 
of the thigh. Rotator muscles are those "which turn the 
parts to which they are attached upon their axes." Such 
are the oblique muscles of the eye and those attached to 
the radial bone of the forearm. It is by means of the 
latter that the forearm and hand can be turned round so 
as to present either side at pleasure. 

Adductors are muscles which move parts toward the 
axis of the body, and abductors those which move parts 
from the axis of the body. Of the first, the large muscles 

1 Muscles are also elastic, and are said to have " tone " when they promptly, 
and in a normal manner, respond to stimuli. 

2 It is not the purpose of this book to weary the student with the technical 
appellations which have come down to us from the Ancients. Their length is 
often in inverse proportion to the size of the muscle named. For instance, a 
very short muscle which extends from one corner of the upper lip to the nostril 
upon the same side of the face, whose function is merely to raise the lip, as in 
sneering, is called the "levator labii superioris alaeque nasi," while a very 
long and important muscle of the thigh is more plainly named the " sartorious, " 
i.e., the "tailor," because it is the principal muscle by which that useful func- 
tionary assumes his familiar position for work. 



28 MUSCLES AND FAT. 

of the chest and back which draw the arm to the side, 
and those which draw the lower extremities together, are 
examples ; of the latter may be named the muscles of the 
shoulder, and the outer muscles of the thigh. 

Sphincters are annular muscles, which close or constrict 
certain natural openings of the body, as the eye and 
mouth. 

40. Muscles, such as the flexors and extensors, the 
abductors and adductors, which produce by their action 
entirely opposite movements, are called opposing or antago- 
nistic. The result of the combined action of opposing 
muscles, when excessive, is rigidity. It is the easy com- 
bined action of the opposing muscles which enables us to 
stand, or to apply a force properly graduated to the 
necessities of the most delicate muscular work, (a.) The 
action of opposing muscles, when healthy, is nicely ad- 
justed, so as not to interfere with their mutually free and 
easy movements. Their abnormal action is exemplified 
in the rigidity which takes place, in convulsions, and in 
"lead palsy," where the unchecked contraction of the 
flexors of the forearm, through paralysis of its extensors, 
produces a falling of the hand known as "wrist drop." 

41. There are also what are termed the muscles of 
expression. Ordinarily, we show how we feel by our 
features, and the position and movements of the body. 
The expression of the emotions is effected mainly, how- 
ever,- by the varied movements of the facial muscles, 
especially those which move the lips, eyelids, eyebrows, 
etc., and of the muscles which move the lower jaw. 
Hence these muscles are spoken of as the "muscles of 
expression." 1 

1 It is stated by Dunglison that there are 70 pairs of muscles in the neck 
and face; and it has been estimated that the body is capable of 5000 different 
movements, and the face of 750 different expressions. 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 29 

42. For the healthy growth and development of muscles, 
alternate exercise and rest are indispensable. Over-worked 
muscles, equally with idle muscles, waste away ; and, in 
the latter case, useless fat may take the place of the 
muscular fibres. Healthy muscles, therefore, require a 
constant supply of good blood, sufficient nerve stimulus, 




Fig. 22. — Muscles of Expression. 

and proper exercise and rest. Without these requisites, 
waste products (principally carbonic acid) accumulate, 
and muscular activity is diminished. In the arrangement 
of nature, certain muscles are intended to be at rest while 
others are in activity. Even the fibres of a single muscle 
do not all act at the same time. This provision does not 
dispense, however, with the necessity for additional rest 
in sleep. 



30 MUSCLES AND FAT. 

43. All parts of the body, the brain included, require 
rest, and share directly or indirectly in the benefits of 
sleep. (#.) Particularly refreshing is the early portion of 
sleep, and that which is least disturbed by uneasy dreams, 
mental effort, and anxiety. Generally, the more both 
mind and body can be withdrawn from all extrinsic stimuli 
the better. The amount of sleep needed by different 
persons varies according to the age and condition of indi- 
viduals. The greater part of infancy is generally passed 
in slumber; and in old age also much sleep is required. 
In middle life, usually, about eight hours a day is neces- 
sary, though it is reported of Frederick the Great and 
Napoleon that they slept but three or four hours out of 
the twenty-four. (£.) Needed restoration is to be often 
sought in a change of employment, whether of work or 
amusement, as well as in sleep. In such cases, if amuse- 
ment be needed, it becomes as much one's duty to play as 
before it was to work. 

44. Fat. — This substance usually constitutes about 
one-twentieth part of the weight of the entire body. It is 
found in all parts of the body, with the exception of the 
bones, teeth, and fibrous tissues, either in the form of 
globules and granules of oil, or of an emulsion, 1 or is in 
masses. In the latter form it is called adipose tissue, the 
most familiar example of which is that which is imbedded 
in the areolar or connective tissue, between the skin and 
the muscles. 

Animal fat is generally a mixture of three varieties of 
fat, — stearine, margarine, and oleine. Stearine and mar- 
garine are more or less solid, as usually seen in the meat 
of animals : but in the live body, at its ordinary tempera- 
ture, they are held in solution by the oleine with which 
they are associated. 

1 That is, in suspension, as in milk. 



MUSCLES AND FAT. 



31 



45. By the arrangement of the fat about the internal 
organs, between the muscles, under the skin, and about 
the joints, it acts as cushions to these structures, maintains 
their temperature, fills up inequalities in and about the 
various structures, and greatly enhances the beauty and 
symmetry of the human form. It also serves for nutrition 
in time of need, as is particularly to be observed in torpid 
animals 1 and in emaciating diseases. In fact, fat being 
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, contains ele- 




Fig. 23. 

AT, adipose tissue ; C, fat in cells of cocoa- 

nut, as viewed through the microscope. 



Fig. 24. 
M, fat globules in milk; E, fat globules 
in an emulsion. Microscopic view. 



ments which are essential to the nutrition and growth of 
tissues, and is found in quantity whenever cell growth is 
rapid, especially in the case of healthy young children. 

46. The amount of fat in different persons depends upon 
age, race, and hereditary tendency ; also upon the weather, 
climate, and occupation ; yet there is probably a normal 
limit as to the amount of fat in the case of each individual. 



1 The common tortoise, for instance, burrows in the earth in the latter part 
of autumn, and does not reappear till spring has well advanced. Some species 
of hears become very fat toward the winter time; and then, during the winter, 
while hibernating, eat no food, as far as is known. In the spring they come 
out of their hiding-places, lank and hungry. 



32 MUSCLES AND FAT. 

Any amount beyond this limit is likely to be not only 
inconvenient, but distressing and even dangerous to life, 
either by impeding the action of the heart or by taking the 
place of important tissues, thereby producing a diseased 
condition which is known as " fatty degeneration." 

Ordinarily, a steady gain of fat within the normal limit 
indicates an improving condition of the blood and better 
nutrition, while a deficiency is often the first note of alarm 
to warn us of the approach of consumption, scrofula, or 
some other serious disease which has begun its stealthy 
march in a faulty nutrition. 1 Rapid loss of fat usually 
indicates impoverishment of the blood. 2 

47. "Fatty tissue is the most fluctuating in bulk of all 
the tissues of the body," for within a very short time a 
large amount may appear or disappear. Its increase is 
promoted by many of the animal and vegetable substances 
used as food, and it is the result also of chemical changes 
that occur in the body in such food as starch and sugar. 
It is often injuriously increased by impoverished blood 
during sickness or idleness, by a continued use of alcoholic 
drinks (especially ale, beer, and porter), and by fatty, 
sugary, and starchy foods. It may be, therefore, dim- 
inished sometimes by a partial or complete omission of the 

1 It has been observed that cooks, butchers, oilers, etc., are generally 
exempt from such affections, and it is believed by some authorities that the 
exemption is due to the fat absorbed by their skins from the materials which 
they handle. 

2 Sometimes, in emaciating diseases, or as the result of excessive alcoholic 
stimulation, the oleine partially disappears from the adipose tissue, and is 
replaced by watery serum, as it is called. "There is a popular idea," says 
Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, in his valuable little treatise {Fat and Blood, and How to 
Make Them), "which has probably passed from the agriculturist into the com- 
mon mind of the community, to the effect that human fat varies, — that some 
fat is wholesome and some unwholesome; that there are good fats and bad 
fats. I remember well an old nurse who assured me when I was a student that 
'some fats is fast and some is fickle, but cod-oil fat is easy squandered.' 
There are more facts in favor of some such idea than I have space for ; but as 
yet we have no distinct chemical knowledge upon the subject." 



MUSCLES A1ST) FAT. 33 

articles of food and drink mentioned above, also by proper 
bathing and attention to the excretory organs, and by 
systematic, well-adapted exercise. It can seldom, with 
safety, however, be kept below the individual's normal 
standard for a great length of time. The use of drugs or 
medicines as anti-fat remedies are not always safe, nor are 
they generally efficacious. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Describe muscles. 

2. What is their chief use? 

3. What two grand divisions of muscles are there? 

1. How are muscles attached to the parts to be moved? 

5. Why are tendons used for this purpose? 

6. Why are the voluntary muscles more often attached to bones than 

the involuntary ? 

7. Why do blood-vessels and nerves accompany muscles? 

8. What is the chief constituent of muscle substance ? 

9. What other uses have muscles besides being organs of motion ? 

10. To what is the moving power of muscles due? 

11. How may the contractility of muscles be excited? 

12. How may then- irritability become weakened? 

13. What are opposing or antagonistic muscles? Give examples. 

14. What are the respective results of their normal and abnormal 

action ? 

15. Xame other sorts of muscles. 

16. What are the muscles of expression? 

17. What is necessary for muscles to be healthy and well developed ? 

18. When is sleep most beneficial? * 

19. What periods of life require most sleep? 

20. How may muscles be refreshed without cessation of activity? 

21. What are the varieties of fat? 

22. What its uses? 

23. How does excessive fat become dangerous ? 
21. How may fat be increased? how diminished? 
25. What about the use of drugs to that end? 



CHAPTER IV. 
MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 

48. Physical culture has engaged the attention of man- 
kind, in a varying degree, from the very earliest times. 
Its object, at first, was to strengthen man for defense 
against his fellow men and wild animals. At a later 
date, in the Grecian games, athletic contests were eagerly 
entered into in a spirit of emulation, and for the culti- 
vation and exhibition of strength and beaiury. Among 
the Spartans the women, as well as the men, had 
their physical training. And yet, we are told by the 
medical writers of those times that the excessive exercise 
indulged in by many of the athletes rendered them "dull, 
sluggish, and torpid, and that they only averaged five 
years of (athletic) life." Still later, in the gymnasia, or 
schools of the Greeks, efforts were first made to combine 
physical and mental education, so as to produce "a sound 
mind in a sound body." Yet, even at the present time, 
the true value of proper muscular exercise in restoring, as 
well as in maintaining health, is not fully appreciated. 
The primary effect upon the system of proper exercise, as 
we have already seen, is to insure the health, strength, 
and tonicity of muscles; and secondarily, by means thereof, 
the health of the other tissues of the body. 

49. Proper muscular exercise is that which is suited to 
the health and strength of the individual. It should be 
varied and agreeable in character, and pursued daily, 



MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 35 

either in the open air or in well-ventilated places, but 
never to the point of weariness. Exercise — walking, for 
example — which is systematically undertaken merely for 
the sake of exercise, is not only irksome, and likely to be 
suspended after a time, but is not as beneficial as when it 
is associated with an agreeable visit, beautiful scenery, the 
gathering of flowers and shells, or even the purchase of 
some desired object. 1 

50. Exercise, besides developing and strengthening the 
muscles, causes a muscular pressure upon the blood-vessels, 
and increases the force and rapidity of the circulation, thus 
promoting the consumption of oxygen 2 by the tissues, and 
the elimination, from them of carbonic acid and other- 
waste products. Through exercise the breathing poiver is 
developed, the apj^etite improved, digestion made stronger, 
the accumulation of fat diminished, and animal heat in- 
creased. The nervous system also shares in the general 
improvement, and, as a consequence, better mental ivork is 
made possible? In those colleges and schools where 
physical culture is attended to, the mental as well as the 
physical strength of the students has been found to be 
improved. («.) 

1 "I have heard that that benevolent nobleman, Lord Rosse, during the 
famine years, anxious to relieve distress, and equally anxious not to encourage 
habits of pauperism, paid men so much a day for digging holes in his demesne, 
and paid them again for the filling of them up. The laborers are said to have 
manifested the most extreme disgust at the occupation, although the work 
was not harder than most useful labors. It is this sense of the inutility of the 
work done by the labor in some of the military prisons which constitutes much 
of the severity of the punishment. And this remark is as true of mental exer- 
cise as of bodily." — Lectures on Public Health. Mapother. 

2 The vivifying principle of the atmosphere which reaches the blood and 
the tissues through the lungs. 

3 " Those nations have shown the most intellectual strength who have 
exhibited the most physical stamina." — Dr. Beddoe, in a paper on the 
Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles. 



36 MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 

51. In fact, in all cases, there should be as much as 
possible a corresponding development of the whole man. 1 
Engravers, telegraph and sewing-machine operators, tailors, 
shoemakers, and all persons who, in plying their vocation, 
use one set of muscles mainly, are liable to paralysis of 
those muscles, (a.) Such persons should, each day, engage 
for a time in exercises that will call into action the other 
muscles of the body. In like manner, those whose callings 
lead them to the exercise of their brains only, to the 
neglect of their muscles, make too large a demand upon 
the nervous system, and pay the penalty in disorders of 
that system. 

52. The powers of endurance of individuals are very 
unequal. Accordingly, what would be proper exercise 
for one person may be very improper for another. Some 
feeble persons are too ambitious and need restraint, as 
much as the lazy need urging. Exercise attended by 
severe or sudden strains upon undeveloped muscles, or 
that is beyond the strength of the individual, or of a kind 
to which he is unaccustomed, will be followed by bad 
results, — for example, by exhaustion, cramps, loss of 
appetite, overstrained heart, and even diseases of the 
blood-vessels and nervous system, (a.) The hard work 
necessitated by certain occupations of life often produces 
serious results, even in very strong and well-developed 

1 Large persons with powerful muscles, but with little endurance, are not 
able to accomplish as much as wiry small ones, whose powers of endurance have 
been developed by gradual training. "A man of good physical capacity may 
be trained so that the voluntary muscles of his arms and chest would be power- 
fully developed with a contractile force proportionate to their size, and yet his 
respiratory power shall be so disproportionate that he could not run a hundred 
yards without gasping ; and anotber, or the same individual, if possessing 
ordinary locomotive capacity and fair development, may be trained to run ten 
times the distance without distress, but the voluntary muscles of whose arms 
and chest shall remain as they stood at the time that the training began." — 
Training in Theory and Practice. McLaren. 



MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 37 

men. It is especially important that sucli occupations 
should be carried on in the open air, or in well-ventilated 
rooms, and that the workers should have the proper kind 
and amount of food. Attention to these details would 
undoubtedly save the lives, especially of many young men 
and women. 

53. Young children, even babies, should not be 
carried more than is absolutely necessary. They will 
exercise themselves sufficiently if placed in warm but 
well-ventilated rooms, where the limbs can have free 
movements, unimpeded by tight or heavy clothing. Child- 
hood, indeed, is a period of restless activity, and by the 
time a child is three years old systematic exercise becomes 
necessary. Gentle walks, running after and throwing 
balls, playing with clean sand, and the like, should be 
regularly permitted and encouraged. Much harm is caused 
by confining young children and putting barriers around 
their natural desires for play. In the case of older chil- 
dren and youth, no system of artificial exercise can take 
the place of that afforded by the usual out-door games, 
such as base ball, foot ball, leap frog, hoop rolling, hare 
and hounds, etc., always provided they are not played too 
roughly or continued too long. These sports may be pur- 
sued advantageously, as a rule, up to forty or forty-five 
years of age. At about this age natural degenerative 
changes occur in the body, and care is particularly neces- 
sary that the heart and blood-vessels be not overstrained. 
Hunting (if moderate), fishing, etc., are more suitable to 
this period of life. At sixty and upwards exercise con- 
tinues necessary; but the tissues having become still 
weaker, it should be very gentle in character. 

54. There is no physiological reason why girls, instead 
of being limited to a round of spiritless games which are 



38 MUSCULAK EXERCISE. 

of very little use in developing strength, quickness of 
motion, and the power of endurance, should not engage 
in man}- of those sports which are the delight of boys, (a.) 
The opportunities for out-door exercise by girls and women 
are, unfortunately, not so many nor so diversified as for 
boys and men. In a few cities, however, a change for the 
better has been effected, and out-door sports are encour- 
aged in the large parks and pleasure grounds. Sedentary 
habits are especially the bane of women in prosperous 
circumstances. It sometimes happens, therefore, that the 
loss of wealth, by bringing with it the necessity for exer- 
tion, and a consequent restoration to health, proves a 
blessing in disguise. 1 

55. The early part of the day, — not immediately on 
rising, however, but after the system has been toned up 
by some slight food and preliminary gentle movements, — 
is the best time for hard work or exercise ; for then the 
body has had the benefit of the rest of the previous night. 
It is not safe to exercise violently either soon after eating 
heartily or upon an empty stomach, or when the body is 
in a state of exhaustion. At one time it was commonly 
believed that a long walk before breakfast was especially 
desirable ; but the bad results following this exercise, in 
many instances, such as exhaustion, faintness, dyspeptic 
and nervous disorders, have served to dispel the idea 
among careful observers. The gentle nervous stimulus 

1 It has been estimated that the average woman, in her work about a house, 
each day exerts as much muscular force as would be expended in walking two 
and a half miles, but that her proper exercise should, in fact, be equal to a 
walk of six miles a day. It is stated that English women frequently walk 
eight to eleven miles a day. Some women, however, though in good circum- 
stances, insist upon doing more daily work than a walk of eight to eleven 
miles would represent. These women, and those who are poorly fed and 
obliged to overwork, seldom have healthful recreations, and sooner or later 
break down. 



MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 39 

given to the whole system by a little light food in the 
stomach after its long fast is needed by the majority, and 
would be beneficial to all, before exercising in the early 
morning. 

56. Varieties of Exercise. — The different 'forms of exer- 
cise may be classified as follows: 1st. Those that bring 
into nearly equal action all the muscles of the body, as 
swimming, horse-back riding, archery, fencing, base and 
foot ball, lawn tennis, military drill, etc. 2d. Those that 
exert the muscles of the upper part of the body princi- 
pally, as billiards, rowing, bowling, shooting, croquet, etc. 
3d. Those that serve to develop principally the muscles of 
the lower part of the body, as walking, dancing, skating, 
bicycle riding, etc. 

Most of these exercises are beneficial to both sexes. As 
respects the one first above-named, certainly every one 
should learn how to swim. Apart from its utility as a 
safeguard to life, it is the experience of one of the large 
swimming schools in London, that carefully regulated 
swimming develops muscle, and relieves to a great extent 
"backache," or pain in the lumbar muscles. Horse-back 
riding also is a valuable form of exercise. As Dr. Holmes 
expresses it, " Saddle-leather is in some respects even pref- 
erable to sole-leather ; the principal objection to it is of 
a financial character." So, too, gentle rowing in a good 
boat not too heavily laden, walking, lawn tennis, and 
archery, are very desirable exercises, (#.) 

57. A gymnasium is valuable for those persons who do 
not have opportunities for out-door exercise, or who need 
the stimulus of class instruction and the companionship of 
fellow-workers, accompanied with systematic drill. But 
too often competition is carried so far that the weak are 
injured. To effect the most good, the gymnasium should 



40 MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 

have a medical superintendent, in order that scholars may 
not be taxed beyond their strength, and the exercise may 
be adapted to the individual ; that proper ventilation 
may be maintained, and other hygienic rules observed; 
and that assistance may be promptly given in case of 
accidents. For persons who cannot leave their houses, 
various appliances, such as dumb-bells, Indian clubs, row- 
ing machines, and rubber bands or cords are beneficial. 1 

58. Persons too feeble to use their own muscles in 
exercise will obtain benefit from carriage riding, the use 
of electricity, or the gentle, daily rubbing, pressing, and 
moving of their muscles by another. This last procedure 
is known as massage, and is every day becoming more 
popular with invalids. Where the will is but slightly, if 
at all exerted, as in the above examples, the exercises are 
known as passive. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What have been the motives for physical culture in the past; and 

by what bad effects was excessive exercise said to have been 
followed ? 

2. What are the effects of, and what is proper exercise? 

3. How does it affect the mental health, and why ? 

4. What is improper exercise, and what are its effects ? 

5. W T hat is to be said of exercise at different ages ? 

6. What of the exercise of females ? 

7. What of exercise in the early morning ? 

8. What of the varieties of exercise ? 

9. What of the gymnasium? 

10. What is massage, and when is it to be employed? 



1 Much good can be accomplished with these appliances, if they are properly 
used; and, for that matter, quite a gymnasium may be fitted up in a private 
house at a moderate cost. 



ANALYSIS. 



41 



ANALYSIS OF CHAPTERS THIRD AND FOURTH 



MUSCLES. 



" 1. Number. 

2. Appearance. 

3. Arrangement 

4. Attachment . 



I. 
Anatomy 



5. Kinds 



6. Structure 



7. Associated 
structures . 



Superficial. 

Deep. 

By muscle. 

By tendon. 

Flexors and extensors. 

Abductors and adductors 

Rotators. 

Sphincters, etc. 

Muscles of expression. 

Voluntary — r Composec 

Fibres & fibrillae J 
Involuntary — ] 

Fibres I ^extractive mat 

Tendons. 

Blood-vessels j v^ GS * 

Lymphatics. 



common salt, cal- 
cium phosphate, al- 
buminous matter, 



Nerves 

Fat. 



( Of motion. 
{ Of sensation. 



f Contractility. 
J Sensibility, 
j Tonicity. 
L Elasticity. 
f As motors. 

j As walls of protection, 
j As aiders of vital processes. 
[ To give beauty of outline. 

f Amount. 
] Time. 
] Manner. 
[ Kind. 

In sleep. 

In amusement. 

In change of work. 



FAT. 
Quantity. Location. Uses. Sources. How increased and diminished. 



HYSIOLOGY 


' 1. Properties . . 




1 2. Uses 




" 1. Nutrition. 


III. 

Hygiene 


2. Exercise . . . 




- 3. Rest 



42 



THE SKIN. 




Fig. 25. 



Longitudinal section of skin (partly diagrammatic), magnified about 400 diameters. Its 
structure and contents (with the exception of the lymphatics). — E, epidermis; 
D, dermis ; CL, color layer ; TC, tactile corpuscle; N, nerve; V, vein; A, artery; 
CT, connective tissue ; F, adipose tissue; HF, hair follicle ; PT, perspiratory tube 
and gland ; SG, sebaceous gland ; EP, erector pilae muscle. 



CHAPTER V. 
THE SKIN. 

59. The skin, or external covering of the body, a much 
more important texture than persons ordinarily believe it 
to be, has been likened to a sentinel, whose duty is to 
guard the body from attacks both from within and without. 
It is strong and elastic ; varies in smoothness and delicacy 
in different parts of the body, and has no less than six 
functions. 1 It consists of two distinct layers, the dermis 
and the epidermis. 2 The former is called also the cutis 
vera or true skin, and the latter the cuticle, the false skin, 
or the scarf skin. 

60. The dermis, or deeper layer, is composed of a dense 
network of fibrous and elastic tissue, 3 in the meshes of which 
are muscular fibres, 4 blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, 
sebaceous and sweat glands, hair and hair follicles. 5 The 
surface of the dermis is raised into prolongations or emin- 
ences called papillae, which, for the most part, are arranged 
in groups or rows, producing the ridges and furrows notice- 
able upon the skin. 6 They are most numerous in its most 

i See § 73. 

2 By some, the connective tissue between the muscles and dermis is spoken 
of as a third layer, though too closely blended with the tissues above it to be 
readily separated from them. Others again make more than three layers by a 
splitting up of the epidermis. In this way we have what are called the Mal- 
pighian and corneal layers, etc. 

3 For description of these tissues, see Introduction. 

4 Muscular fibres are abundant in the skins of many animals, enabling 
them to shake off insects by a wrinkling motion of the hides. 

5 " Little bags " or pouches. 

6 These ridges and furrows may be readily distinguished by means of a 
good magnifying glass. 



44 THE SKIN. 

sensitive parts, such as the jDalms of the hands, where they 
number about 35,000 to the square inch. The papillae are 
made up in part of connective tissue, and of terminal 
blood-vessels arranged in loops, and of nerves in oval 
enlargements known as "tactile corpuscles," or "little 
bodies with touch-power " ; for in them the sense of touch 
resides. 1 The extreme sensitiveness of the papillary por- 
tion of the skin is made apparent -whenever the raised 
cuticle covering a blister is broken, and anything, even 
air, comes in direct contact with the " true skin." 

61. Underlying the dermis, and closely blended with 
it, is the sub-cutaneous or connective tissue, which contains 
blood-vessels, lymphatics, nerves, muscular fibres, and 
adipose tissue. When the normal amount of fat is dimin- 
ished, the skin becomes roughened and wrinkled. 2 

62. The superficial layer of the skin, the epidermis, is 
composed entirely of cells, and is devoid of blood-vessels 
and nerves, but through it pass hairs and the ducts of the 
perspiratory or sweat glands, and of the sebaceous, or oil 
glands, and from it and the dermis beneath the nails grow. 
The cells upon the surface of the epidermis, being exposed 
to the influence of the atmosphere and external sources of 
injury, become flattened, hard, and horn-like in texture, 
while the newly-formed under-cells, or those in contact 
with the papillae, are rounded and soft. 



1 In the outer portion of the dermis, and below the papillae, other nerves 
end in enlargements, but are there known as Paccinian corpuscles. The nerves 
of the skin are sometimes classified as follows : (1) Nerves of Sensation ; (2) 
Trophic nerves, or those which control the nourishment of the skin; (3) Secre- 
tory nerves, or those that control the action of the glands; and (4) Vasa Motor 
nerves, or the nerves which regulate the action of the blood-vessels. 

2 " Wrinkled old age " owes its appearance partly also to an increase in the 
amount of elastic tissue natural to that period of life. 



THE SKIX. 45 

63. Owing to attrition and chemical action, the outer 
cells of the epidermis are almost constantly being removed, 
while the deeper ones, formed from the dermis, are being 
pushed forward to take their place, growing harder and 
flatter as the}' approach the surface. 1 Having no nerves, 
the epidermis is not sensitive ; and, being without blood- 
vessels, cannot bleed. It is well adapted, therefore, as a 
covering and 'protection to the sensitive tissues beneath ; 
and this adaptation is nicely adjusted to the demand for it 
by a proportionate thickening of the epidermis according 
as the several parts of the body are more or less used, (a.) 

64. The uncler-cells contain the coloring matter of the 
skin ; and, by the pigment so contained, and its diversified 
arrangement, are caused the distinctive variations in color 
of individuals, families, and races. The whiteness of the 
skin of Albinoes is due to the absence of this pigment, while 
"freckles," and the peculiar irregular discoloration seen 
upon the skin of so-called " leopard boys," are owing to 
variations in its quantity, quality, or distribution. The 
color of the skin is due in part also to the blood circulating 
through it ; thus, an unusual quantity of red blood in thin 
portions of the skin causes it to "blush" or redden, while 
blood tinged by the yellow coloring matter of the bile 
imparts a "jaundiced" or yellow color. 

65. Classified as appendages of the skin are the sweat 
and sebaceous glands (with their ducts), and the hair and 
nails. In the dermis and subcutaneous tissue are the 
sweat glands, consisting of numerous coils of exceedingly 
minute tubing 2 of varying length in the different parts of 
the body, and surrounded on all sides by a fine network 

1 A microscopic examination of water in which the hands are washed will 
almost always show an ahundance of epidermal cells, even though the water 
itself seems quite clear. 

2 About gyo of an inch in diameter. 



46 



THE SKIN. 



of blood-vessels ; the lower extremity of each coil being 
closed and turned towards its centre. From the blood in 
these blood-vessels the perspiration is being constantly 
filtered out by the tubular sweat glands. By means of the 
close coiling of the lower portion of each tube, a consider- 
able extent of gland surface is spread out among the 
terminal blood-vessels. The upper extremity of each 
glandular coil is the commencement of a perspiratory 
tube. These tubes extend upwards in nearly a straight 
direction through the true skin, but in the epidermis pre- 
sent a number of spiral turns. They are mere excretory 

ducts, and open upon the sur- 
face of the body. Their open- 
ings, together with the outer 
openings of the tubes of the 
sebaceous or oil glands, consti- 
tute the "pores." 




^--r^-V.o 



Fig. 26. 
Epidermis from the palm of the hand 
(with its pores), as viewed from 
the under surface. Magnified eight 
diameters. 



66. Sweat glands are found 
nearly everywhere in the skin, 
but are most numerous in the 
palms, soles, and arm-pits, where 
they number from 2685 to 2736 
to the square inch. Upon the 
entire surface of the body there 
have been estimated to be between tivo and three millions, 
and the entire length of the secreting tubes is said to be 
about two and a half miles. The very great number of 
glands, and the coiled and twisted arrangement by which 
considerable length is attained in minute spaces, indicate 
the great importance of the work which they have to per- 
form, (a.) 

67. The function of the perspiratory glands is to elimi- 
nate the debris of used-up tissues, and by a well-balanced 



THE SKIN. 47 

exudation of watery fluid, to keep the body comfortable in 
the varying temperature and conditions to which it is 
exposed. Most of the j)erspiration which is brought to the 
surface by the sweat glands is immediately evaporated in 
the form of an imperceptible vapor, and is therefore termed 
insensible perspiration, as contradistinguished from that 
sensible perspiration or sweat, which is the result of vigor- 
ous exercise, over-heat, etc. 

68. Under ordinary circumstances the amount of per- 
spiration excreted in twenty-four hours is from two to 
three pounds, but varies with the temperature, current, 
and moisture of the air, the depressed or excited state of 
the nervous system, physical exercise, etc., etc. Workmen 
in gas-houses, furnaces, iron-works, and other places where 
they are subjected to great heat, may perspire as much as 
three pints in an hour. To prevent exhaustion, such per- 
sons drink freely of water, or, better still, of water con- 
taining oatmeal. A hot and dry atmosphere accelerates 
perspiration, while a moist or muggy one retards it ; and, 
if warm, produces inconvenience and sometimes great suf- 
fering. It is related of Chabert, " the fire-king," that, if the 
air were dry, he could enter, without discomfort, a chamber 
where the temperature was 400° F., but could not endure a 
moist atmosphere of a much lower temperature. Perspira- 
tion is also impeded by cold and draughts of air. The 
importance of a free flow of the perspiration is illustrated 
by the bad effects resulting from any sudden check of it, 
as in " the catching of cold," in fever, etc. In such cases 
extra excretory work is thrown upon other organs, espe- 
cially upon the lungs and kidneys, by which the health 
may become permanently impaired. 

69. The sebaceous glands secrete an oily matter which 
lubricates the skin and hair, and thus preserves their soft- 



48 THE SKIN. 

ness and pliancy. 1 They are located in the dermis, and 
are either simple follicles or clusters of simple follicles, 
called " compound follicles," with tubes connecting the 
several simple follicles of each cluster with a common or 
main tube. For the most part the central tubes open into 
the hair sacs (Fig. 25) ; while simple follicles, not con- 
nected with others, open directly upon the surface of the 
skin, and are especially numerous about the face. In 
some of the follicles, however, there are fine downy 
hairs. 

70. Hairs are distributed more or less abundantly over 
the surface of the body. 2 Their bulbs or root enlarge- 
ments are inserted either in special hair sacs or follicles, or, 
in the case of the fine downy hairs, in sebaceous follicles. 
The shafts of the former pass out obliquely through the 
ducts of the follicles (Fig. 25). Each hair is oval or 
somewhat flattened, and is composed of a pith-like sub- 
stance in the centre, surrounded by a fibrous tissue, and 
this by a so-called cuticle or layer of epidermal-like cells. 3 
Hairs are well supplied with blood at the base of the hair 
follicles, and are living tissues, strong and elastic. 4 



1 In sebaceous glands minute (microscopic) animalculae are sometimes 
found, but are not as frequent or as harmful as some sensational publications 
would lead us to believe. What are often called " flesh worms " are nothing 
more than masses of fatty matter tipped by " black points " or dirt, which has 
adhered to them at the mouths of the sebaceous glands. 

2 It has been estimated that a thin head of hair contains 90,000 hairs, while 
a thick head of hair has 133,920. 

3 Under the microscope the sides of a hair seem to be roughened. The hair 
(fur) of certain animals is perceptibly rough to the touch. Human hair may 
become rough from disease. Very flat hair is apt to curl like a shaving. 

* It has been found that a hair ten inches long will stretch to thirteen inches ; 
and that a hair stretched one-fifth returned to within one-seventeenth of its 
original length; also, that a single hair of a boy, 8 years of age, supported a 
weight of 7,812 grains; one of a man of 22 years, 14,285 grains; of 57 years, 
22,222 grains. 



THE SKIN. 



49 



71. The hair has various uses. That upon the head 
and face protects from cold and excessive heat. The eye- 
brows prevent the perspiration from running into the eyes, 
the eyelashes keep out dust, while the hairs at the orifices 
of the nose and ears protect those parts from dust, insects, 
etc. To the hair follicles, muscular fibres (erector-pilae ; 
Fig. 25) are attached, which, under the stimulus of fear, 
horror, cold, etc., cause the follicles to be more perpendicu- 
lar, and thus the hair to "stand on end." Hair is subject 
to various diseases which may shorten its length, change 
its color, or destroy it. It is affected by the same condi- 
tions as the skin, of which it is a part, (a.) 



72. The nails are modifications of the epidermis, iden- 
tical in formation, but peculiar in appearance and manner 
of growth. The nail ^ ^ - 
rests in a " matrix," 
which is a fold of the 
dermis, particularly rich 
in papillae, from Avhich 
the nail cells are pro- 
duced. When nails are 
destroyed, new ones will 
be formed if the matrix 
is uninjured. Nails are 
a support and a defence 
to the ends of the fingers 
and toes, and assist in the picking up of small objects, and, 
if healthy and in good condition, add comeliness to the 
parts to which they are attached. The health of the nails 
is affected by local or general diseases. They may become 
rough or split or marked by grooves or discolorations, as 
the result of disease. 




Fig. 27. 
Two views of the end of a finger. In the first, 
part of the skin covering the base of the nail is 
cut and turned hack to show the base of the 
nail. In the second (a perpendicular section), 
the relations of the nail to the skin, fat, muscle, 
and bone are shown. 



50 THE SKIN. 

73. The functions of the ski?i are six in number, — it is 
a covering and protector of the external surface of the 
body ; an organ of sensation ; an organ of excretion ; a 
regulator of temperature ; an organ of absorption ; and 
an accessory organ of breathing. 

74. First. It is a protective covering. In a good sized 
man it contains about seventeen square feet of surface, is 
thick and strong upon those parts most subject to pressure 
and friction, but thinner where motion or greater elasticity 
is necessary, as on the eyelids, in the armpits, under the 
knees, and over the abdominal organs. When covered 
with hair, it becomes an especially strong protector to the 
parts beneath. 

75. Second. Being abundantly supplied with nerves, 
the skin is also an organ of sensation, enabling us to appre- 
ciate all degrees and varieties of touch and temperature. 
The value of this sensitiveness is especially appreciated in 
the different trades and avocations of life, and most of all 
when it is diminished or lost. In a palsied limb it may 
happen that a severe frost-bite, burn, or other injury will 
even destroy the tissues without the knowledge of the 
sufferer. The sensibility of the skin is greatest on the 
pulps of the fingers and the front of the body, and least 
in the middle of the limbs and on the back. 

76. Third. The skin serves also as an organ of excretion, 
purifying and eliminating from the blood the waste pro- 
ducts in solution in the perspiration. These excreta, in 
addition to the water, are carbonic acid, fatty acids, ammo- 
nia salts, etc. In disease there is an effort to eliminate 
also various other abnormal and injurious products. 

77. Fourth. The skin is the great regulator of animal 
temperature. "Animal heat" is produced by the various 



THE SKIN. 51 

processes carried on in the body. Though the general 
temperature of the human body is about 98J F., there is a 
normal variation within the limits of health of about 1° 
below and above that point. Loss of heat is produced by 
contact of the body with anything cold, by radiation, and 
through the excretions; but the due regulation of the 
bodily temperature depends, in part, upon the elimination 
of wateiy vapor by the lungs, but mainly upon the per- 
spiratory function of the skin. The constant evaporation 
of the perspiration into the surrounding air is the most 
powerful of all the means whereby the surplus heat is 
carried off and the body kept at its normal temperature. 
In health, whenever the body begins to suffer from excess 
of heat, as, for example, after violent exercise, the skin 
forthwith responds to the urgency of the occasion, and, 
pouring out its due amount of insensible perspiration, or 
of sensible sweat, an adjustment of the temperature is 
effected, and the proper standard preserved. 1 

78. Fifth. The skin is an organ of absorption. It takes 
up and passes through it into the lymph and blood-vessels 
certain substances with which it may come in contact. It 
has been found by experiment that the body absorbs water 
through the skin, (a.) Certain drugs, as strychnine, qui- 
nine, mercury, and belladonna produce their usual effects 
when applied to the tender parts of the skin. The rubbing 
in of oily preparations, i.e., inunction, has long been used 
to increase warmth and furnish nourishment. Careless 
workmen in lead works, painters, and mirror-silverers are 
often poisoned by lead or mercury absorbed through the 

1 The value of the skin as a regulator of temperature is sometimes strikingly 
shown when, from "catching cold," the hody is alternately chilly or hot. A 
proper bath taken early in this disordered condition produces a " sweat," and 
the equable normal temperature is regained. 



52 THE SKIN. 

skin. The evil effects which have been stated to result 
from cosmetics and hair dyes are due, of course, to the 
absorption of harmful material. Friction increases the 
rapidity of absorption. 

79. Sixth. Lastly, the skin, by virtue of its powers of 
absorption and excretion, serves as an accessory organ 
of breathing. It absorbs a small amount of oxygen, and 
gives out a larger amount of carbonic acid, performing, 
it is estimated, from one-fortieth to one-fiftieth of the 
respiratory function. 

80. Owing to the extent, structure, and variety of 
functions of the skin, its condition has much to do with the 
general health. The skin, lungs, liver, bowels, and kidneys 
are allies in physiological action. All excrete waste ma- 
terial, each in its own way. If, therefore, from any cause, 
the normal action of any one or more of these organs is 
interfered with, extra and unnatural work is thrown upon 
the others, and the excessive excretions produce discom- 
fort, and often inflammatory disease of greater or less 
danger. 1 The skin is also intimately connected with the 
internal organs by nerves and vessels. Hence, if it be 
severely injured, as by an extensive burn, these organs 
may become inflamed and death result. Conversely, be- 
cause of the same intimate connection, or "sympathy," as 
it is sometimes called, indigestion often causes eruptions 
to appear upon the skin. 



1 At the coronation of Pope Leo the Tenth, a little hoy, representing au 
angel, whose skin was gilded, died as the result of stoppage of the "pores." 
In like manner, animals, varnished all over, have died. 



— -*- 



THE SKIN. 53 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Describe the skin and name its different layers. 

2. Locate and describe the dermis. 

3. What are the papillae, and what peculiar power resides in them? 

4. Where is the subcutaneous tissue, and what does it contain ? 

5. Where is the epidermis, of what composed, and what passes 

through it? 

6. To what is the color of the skin owing ? 

7< Of what use is the epidermis, and how is it adapted to its use ? 

8. What are the appendages of the skin ? 

9. Describe the sweat glands and their functions? 

10. What affects the flow of perspiration, and, if checked, what 

f oUows ? 

11. Describe the sebaceous glands and their uses. 

12. Describe the hair and its uses ; the nails and their uses. 

13. What are the functions of the skin ? Describe each. 

14. Explain why the skin and other excretory organs are mutually 

affected by the condition of each other ? 

15. AVhat connection has the condition of the skin with the general 

health? 



CHAPTER VI. 
BATHING. 

81. Bathing has at all times been considered of value, 
though its full importance as a sanitary measure is not 
even yet generally appreciated. The bathing establish- 
ments of the Ancients were many and magnificent, and 
were patronized by multitudes daily, partly for health, 
but largely because bathing in them was inexpensive, 
and the baths were luxuriously appointed. In Eastern 
countries, bathing has always been a religious rite. From 
time to time it has been regarded as a diversion by the 
devotees of fashion. But the large amount of waste mate- 
rial thrown off by the skin, and the continual lodgement 
upon it of foreign matter, should make bathing both a reli- 
gious duty and a perpetual fashion. 

82. It assists the shin in the discharge of its functions, 
and removes dirt, odors, and poisonous materials. Perspira- 
tion, ordinarily a harmless fluid, if allowed to accumulate 
upon the skin, mingled with dirt of various kinds, clogs 
the pores, and may even undergo chemical changes, and 
become an irritant, or produce poisonous matter which 
may be absorbed into the system. 

According to the eminent English sanitarian, Mr. Chad- 
wick, "Skin cleanliness augments the nutritive effects of food." 1 

1 He adds: "It should therefore he preached to the poor, as an additional 
inducement to skin cleanliness, that the same food which is required to make 
four children that are kept dirty thrive, will serve to make five thrive whose 
skins are daily washed and kept clean." 






BATHING, 55 

Iii other words, the assimilation of new materials is pro- 
moted by a more thorough getting rid of the old. 

Again, bathing keeps the pores open, promotes excre- 
tion, and thus renders valuable aid in regulating bodily 
temperature, and in warding off colds, 1 fevers, skin erup- 
tions, 2 and internal disorders. On the other hand, various 
skin and contagious diseases owe their origin to, and spread 
most rapidly among the slovenly in the crowded portions 
of cities. 

83. The kind of bathing to be selected, and how and 
when to bathe, depend upon the age and health, the pecu- 
liarities and occupation of the individual, the state of the 
weather, etc. The ordinary water baths are classified as to 
temperature as hot, warm, tepid, temperate, cool, and cold. 3 
The daily use of temperate and tepid baths agrees with most 
persons, but it is desirable to become accustomed to cool 
water if we wish the tonic effects of bathing. This can 
often be accomplished by gradually lowering the tempera- 
ture of the bath a little each time, or by following up a 
sponging with tepid water by one with cool water. It 
should, however, be quickly performed, and in a warm 
room, and be accompanied by a brisk rubbing of the skin 



1 It is believed, by many medical authorities, that proper and systematic 
bathing will, to a great extent, prevent or cure "catarrhs" or colds in the 
head, throat, or lungs. Dr. C. R. Agnew, after twenty-nine years' practice in 
New York City, writes: "Inattention to health laws produces defects in 
tissue building. There is a morbid sensibility of the skin and mucous mem- 
branes. I arrive at the causes by the result of treatment, for I find, that 
by proper shoeing, open fires, the cold bath in the morning on rising, fol- 
lowed by brisk rubbing with a pair of English bath-mittens and the use of the 
strap, and by the exposure of the skin to the air, very many times catarrhs 
disappear without any local treatment whatever." 

2 It is the testimony of many fat persons, that systematic bathing prevents 
and cures chafing of the skin much better than powders, ointments, etc. 

3 Hot, 98° to 112° F. Warm, 92° to 98° F. Tepid, 85° to 92° F. Temperate, 
75° to 85° F. Cool, 60° to 75° F. Cold, 30° to 60° F. 



Ob BATHING. 

with the hands, a towel, mittens of crash towelling, or a 
flesh-brush. 1 In the case of old and feeble persons, whose 
circulation is sluggish, tepid water alone should be used, 
and friction may be applied over a loose flannel gown put 
on the dampened body. Comfort may sometimes be de- 
rived from friction, especially of the upper part of the 
body, with mittens merely dampened, or by dry rubbing 
with mittens or with the hands. 

84. For very young children, a sponge or dip bath of 
tepid water is desirable, given each day or alternate day. 
But the child should gradually become accustomed to cool 
water; and after all baths, its skin should be thoroughly 
but gently rubbed, dried, and warmed, for little children 
lose heat rapidly, and imperfect drying increases the lia- 
bility to catch cold. Older children in health, who exer 
cise in the open air, may bathe to advantage daily in even 
very cool water, if the bath be a short one, and followed 
by brisk friction. Many adults are benefited by such daily 
bathing, and persons who work in a dusty atmosphere may 
need even more than one bath per day. If, from any cause, 
the entire body cannot be bathed, the bathing of the head, 
neck, chest, and feet will generally afford comfort and 
strength. 

85. Hot and cold baths are to be used with caution, and 
especially by persons with heart disease, or far advanced 
in consumption, or when greatly fatigued. Hot-water baths 
are more cleansing than cold water, but are generally more 
relaxing, and have not the tonic properties of the latter. 



1 Such bathing, lasting only from five to eight minutes, is valuable in the 
morning, on rising, for the majority of people. Sometimes a few drops of 
ammonia-water, or some salt added to the water of a bath, renders it more 
stimulating. Children and feeble persons have repeatedly become accustomed 
to cool and even cold baths by gradual training as above. 



BATHING. 57 

Once a week is often enough to use a hot-water bath. 
Frequently resorted to, danger may result from over- 
stimulation and subsequent depression of the heart and 
nervous system. Individuals in robust health may enjoy 
frequent bathing in cold water, even in cool rooms, if the 
bathing occupies but a short time, and is followed by brisk 
friction, but the practice is attended with risk. 1 

SO. The value of a bath is determined by its ultimate 
effects, and is influenced largely by the time of day in 
which it is taken. The immediate effect of very cool or 
cold water applied to the skin is to chill the surface of the 
body (the "first shiver"), lowering its temperature, pro- 
ducing pallor by driving the blood inwards, and through 
contraction of the skin muscles, especially those attached 
to the hair follicles, giving rise to the appearance called 
" goose skin." If bathing be now unduly prolonged, the 
secondary effects (the "second shiver") appear, i.e. marked 
chilliness, lassitude, and in some instances great prostration. 

87. The first effect of a warm bath is to quicken the 
pulse and respiration, and raise the temperature of the 
blood, and bring it to the surface, making the skin glow. 
Following this effect are chilly sensations, and an appear- 
ance of " goose skin," and, unless the bather finishes his 
bath, or moves about actively, he is liable to catch cold, 
especially if bathing in a cool room. Hot water applied 
to the skin promptly stimulates it, and is as promptly fol- 
lowed by chilliness, lassitude, and prostration if the bather 
is not robust and active, or the bath-room is cool. 

1 There are people, undoubtedly, who can break the ice in ponds, and 
plunge in with impunity, but the majority of persons cannot. Sometimes 
bathing must be so nicely adapted to the individual's needs, that only a physi- 
cian can decide what kind it must be, and how and when it is to be resorted to, 



58 BATHING. 

88. After all kinds of bathing there should be reac- 
tion or the attempt on the part of nature to raise or 
lower the temperature, as the case may require, to the 
normal point. If the "reaction" is well marked, the 
bather feels generally better, the skin glows, the mind is 
clearer, appetite is increased, etc. If, on the contrary, the 
result of a bath is depression, chilliness, paleness of the 
skin, etc., the bathing has been improper, and may induce 
disease of the internal organs. 

Proper bathing should tone up the system by increas- 
ing the force of the respiration and circulation, and by 
strengthening the nerve power. Just as some require 
vigorous, and others gentle exercise, some a cold and 
others a warm climate, so for some the cold, and for 
others the warm bath is most desirable. 

89. As to the times for bathing, — though very strong 
and healthy persons may, with impunity, bathe at almost 
any time, and in water of any bearable temperature, — yet, 
for the majority, it is not prudent to bathe in hot or cold 
water before breakfast, as at that time the bodily powers 
are weakest ; or to take a prolonged bath in water of even 
moderate temperature when fatigued, or just before, or just 
after a hearty meal or unusual exercise. About 11 A.M. is 
a suitable time for most persons. Feeble people, however, 
who catch cold easily, can generally bathe more safely just 
before going to bed. After bathing, they need extra 
warm bed-clothing, but should not have enough to pro- 
duce sweating. 1 

1 At the seaside, only the hardiest should attempt an early " morning dip in 
the surf." Many persons are there injured by bathing very soon after a hearty 
meal of clams, fish, etc. Such food needs strong digestive powers and ample 
time for digestion. This process is interfered with by such bathing, and blood 
is diverted in increased quantity into weak blood-vessels, causing sometimes 
apoplexy and death. 



BATHING. 59 

90. In addition to the ordinary fresh-water baths, there 
are salt or sea-water baths, mineral baths, and other baths 
resorted to for cleanliness, or as means of nourishment or 
for their supposed medicinal effects. Such are the Russian 
or vapor bath, 1 the Turkish or hot-air 2 bath, and the cold- 
air, sun, broth, and even mud and blood baths. 

91. Salt-water bathing has greater tonic effects than 
fresh water. At the sea-shore the air also contains par- 
ticles of salt. There, too, are new scenes and surroundings, 
and the water dashing with force against the body, gives 
occasion to vigorous, muscular exercise and social hilarity. 
All this exercise, combined with the stimulating properties 
of the salt water itself, tends greatly to quicken the cir- 
culation, and to add value to the bath. But to obtain all 
the good effects, the bather should first thoroughly wet the 
head and shoulders, then dash into the water, move briskly 
about, and come out before feeling tired or chilly. He 
should then rub dry and dress quickly. 3 

92. Mineral baths are baths of water containing various 
natural or artificial mineral salts. Certain mineral springs 
— those of Arkansas and West Virginia for example — are 
much resorted to by invalids. 

93. The Turkish bath is a valuable method of cleansing 
the body and " equalizing the circulation," and is generally 
preferred to the Russian bath, Avhere the air is hot and moist. 
But after the bath, the bather should remain in the waiting- 



i 100° to 130° F. 2 110° to 200° F. 

3 Salt water being more dense than fresh, is much easier to float and swim 
in, and is for this reason preferred by bathers. The weight of the human 
body in life, with the lungs healthy and inflated, is generally less than the same 
bulk of water, hence, it need not sink in either fresh or salt water. Sometimes 
persons do sink because they become alarmed, and, in their fright, fail to in- 
flate the lungs, but raise the arms, thereby submerging the mouth and nostrils. 



60 BATHING. 

room for a considerable time before venturing into the outer 
air, and should then be well wrapped up, and should not 
expose himself to draughts by standing on street corners, 
riding in open vehicles, etc., but may, to advantage, take 
a moderate walk. 1 

94. The Ancients esteemed sun baths for their remedial 
effects, and had places assigned in their gardens and build- 
ings where the body could be exposed to the sun's rays. («.) 
At the present time, much value, in certain quarters, is 
attached to the sun bath. 2 In some parts of Germany, 
mud baths are used for their supposed medicinal effects. 
So milk, blood, broth, oil, etc., are in some places applied 
to the skin as nourishing agents. Inunction with oil or 
vaseline after a bath is known as a " Roman bath," and is 
sometimes of value in softening harsh skins and increasing 
warmth. 3 

95. Soap is almost always necessary as an adjunct of 
bathing to remove, by its chemical action, greasy particles, 
but the oftener we bathe the less will soap be needed. Soap 
should be of the very best quality. Poor soaps, containing 
an excess of alkali, made from poor fats or oils, or contain- 
ing impurities, — such as have been found by investigation 
with the microscope, viz., small pieces of bone, decaying 

1 Tt is astonishing how different one feels after a Turkish bath properly- 
given. Mapother states, that in the East, where the baths are very thorough, 
and are accompanied by much shampooing and friction, the " skin o£ only one 
week's date when collected is often as large as one's fist." Sidney Smith, in a 
letter from a hot bath in Germany, says: " They have already scraped enough 
off me to make a curate." 

2 Some institutions, as the New York Hospital and the Hospital for Crippled 
Children, have their Solaria or sun-rooms, in which certain feeble persons are 
placed each day. 

3 The South-Sea Islanders are said to anoint the body freely with the oil of 
the cocoanut before and after bathing in the sea. It is said to increase their 
powers of endurance in the water. 



BATHING. 61 

connective tissue, and even pus cells, — will irritate the 
skin and produce eruptions. 1 Soaps made of good animal 
fat and potash, or borax, good " castile " soap for example, 
or those made of vegetable fats, as tar, almond, palm, 
etc., are the best. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Why is bathing important to health ? 

2. Upon what do the times, manner, and hours of bathing depend ? 

3. What is the proper bathing for different ages ? 

4. What effects follow proper and what improper bathing? 

5. "What as to cold and warm water respectively ? 

6. What are the best times for bathing ? 

7. How are water baths classified, and what can you say of the several 

kinds ? 

8. What other baths are there, and what can you say of them? 

9. What can you say about soap? 



1 Among the very poor, common laundry soaps are frequently used for 
toilet purposes. Some of these soaps are injurious. The demand for " cheap 
articles " has brought into the market many toilet soaps, too cheap sometimes 
to be reliable. 



CHAPTER VII. 
CLOTHING. 

96. When the body is exposed to a temperature lower 
than its own, heat is abstracted from it by radiation, by 
evaporation of surface moisture, and by conduction or 
direct contact with the air. The great object of clothing 
is to prevent this loss. Clothing not only hinders too 
rapid evaporation from the body, but being, together 
with the warmed air confined between it and the body, 
non-conducting, a loss of heat from direct contact with 
the outer air and other cold objects is avoided, and radia- 
tion is materially checked. We are thus enabled to bear 
more easily sudden changes of temperature, especially 
those of us who are delicate and sensitive. 1 

97. The retention of animal heat, besides being essen- 
tial to comfort, is valuable also as an economizer of the 
natural forces. An exhausting expenditure of nervous 
and muscular energy to create animal heat is thereby 
avoided, and the food, instead of being used up as fuel in 
supplying a constant waste, is saved for the construction 
and repair of tissue. The bearing of this upon the more 
legitimate demands for nervous and muscular force must 
not be overlooked. It is well known that both human 



1 "The best way then to avoid catching cold, although it may seem a 
paradox, is not to be too much afraid of cold. Let one's accustomed exercise 
not be interrupted because it is damp, or even rains. Let these conditions be 
met by appropriate clothing, and let the feet be well protected by strong 
shoes." — Physiology for Practical Use. Hinton. 



CLOTHING. 63 

beings and animals, when warm, require less food and can 
do better work than when chilly or cold. 1 

98. The non-conducting properties of clothing, and of 
the confined air under it, render it also a protection to 
the body from external heat. Other objects of clothing 
are to protect the skin from dust and external sources of 
injury, and particularly from the injurious influences of the 
winds, damp air, rain, hail, and snow, and from contact 
with poisonous substances. Of clothing as a covering and 
an ornament of the body mention also may be made. 

99. What constitutes proper and improper clothing is a 
matter for careful consideration. Nature provides the 
inferior animals with a natural covering that is beautiful, 
complete, and admirably adapted for varying seasons and 
climates ; but God-like man, in this as in other respects, 
is left with a power of choice that has for its consequences 
life or death, a blessing or a curse. 

We have already seen that freedom of movement is indis- 
pensable in the various forms of muscular exercise, and in 
the performance of vital processes. It follows, therefore, 
that any clothing which interferes with this freedom is 
strictly to be avoided. 



1 "Our clothing is merely an equivalent for a certain amount of food ; the 
more warmly we are clad the less urgent becomes the appetite for food, 
because the loss of heat by cooling and consequently the amount of heat to be 
supplied by food is diminished." — Liebig. 

" Warm clothes are as desirable in winter as are sufficient supplies of food, 
and to a great extent these are interchangeable ; the well-fed person with- 
stands cold well, and needs but light clothing compared to the ill-fed person, 
who must be warmly clad. . . . The hybernating animals, as the hedge-hog, 
the mole, and the viper or the frog, could not maintain themselves alive on 
the material stored up in the body, if they did not also locate themselves so 
that their heat is not readily radiated away."— The Maintenance of Health. 

FOTHERGILL. 



64 CLOTHING. 

100. Heavy or tightly-fitting head coverings overheat 
the scalp and exclude the air. Their pressure obstructs 
the blood supply and the free action of the nerves, induc- 
ing headache and baldness. Tight cravats, collars, and 
bands press upon the windpipe and the important blood- 
vessels, nerves, and other structures of the neck, thereby 
impeding the passage of air, blood, and nerve currents, 
and producing discomfort, a sense of fullness in the head, 
headache, disturbance of vision, etc. Says a writer: 

"Some years ago many British soldiers fell victims to 
close military stocks, which, obstructing the easy return 
of the blood from the head, produced cerebral congestions 
and apoplexy." 

101. The shoulders should bear a large part of the 
weight of clothing ; but the pressure of arm-hole seams of 
outer garments and the shoulder bands of under clothing 
upon the arms below the shoulder joints hinder the free 
play of those important members, and are obstructions to 
proper muscular exercise. 

102. The normal movements of the lungs, heart, and 
other organs are disturbed whenever the free movements 
of the ribs are restrained by tight coats, corsets, vests, or 
bands, (a.) Such compression, more than any other, 
deranges the vital processes, producing suffering which 
is often referred to other causes. Among its effects 
are lassitude, headache, cold feet, shortness of breath on 
exercising, dyspepsia, faintness, many derangements of 
the functions of internal organs, and sometimes deformities 
of the chest, and, in persons of weak lungs, consumption. 1 

1 Persons who wear tight clothing about the chest seldom admit the fact 
any more than they will confess to other sins. A simple experiment, however, 
will convict the sinner. It is well known to medical examiners of life insur- 
ance companies, and for the army and navy, that the measurement around the 



CLOTHING. 65 

103. Sometimes clothing is held in place by very tight 
belts, which impede the free movements of the abdominal 
organs, and cause various disorders. Elastic bands in 
garters and shoe-tops are sometimes so tight as to affect 
seriously the circulation of the blood in the parts pressed 
upon. 

104. No articles of dress need to be so nicely adjusted, 
perhaps, for the comfort of the individual as boots and 
shoes. 1 If too large they cause discomfort, loss of temper, 



Fig. 28. 
Vertical section of right foot, showing the arches and the relations of the various 
structures. — B, bones; M, muscles; T, tendons; F, fat; C, connective tissue; 
BL, blood-vessels. 

corns, bunions, etc. ; if too small they do all this and 
more. They interfere with muscular exercise, cause cold 
feet, pain, and deformity, (a.) But so imperative and 

middle of the chest, even with the clothes on, should show at least two inches 
difference between the chest expanded by full inspiration and contracted by- 
forced expiration. The difference, in health, is from 2 to 4 inches, the average 
being about 3. Now, a chest that expands (after being emptied as far as 
possible of air) only li to If inches with tight garments on, will often expand 
2} to 3^ inches with the garments removed. This last degree of expansion 
is the normal one, and any garment that lessens it is too tight. 

1 "It is said that the Duke of Wellington, being questioned as to the most 
essential requisite of a soldier's clothing, replied, 'a good pair of shoes.' 
What next ? ' A spare pair of good shoes ' ; and even thirdly, ' a spare pair 
of soles.' " — Lectures on Public Health. Dr. Mapother, 



66 



CLOTHING. 



universally submitted to are the regulations of fashion, 
that it is only with considerable difficulty, in spite of our 
boasted enlightenment, that proper shoes and boots can 
be bought. 1 

105. In shoes modelled upon lasts of wrong shape the 
weight is thrown upon or toward the outer side of the 
foot, instead of being borne, as it should be, directly over 
a line drawn from the middle of the heel to the middle 
of the big toe. (Fig. 1.) If to such shoes high heels are 
added, and especially if they are near the middle of the 






Fig. 29. 
A, normal foot, proper position of toes ; B, normal foot, with an outline of the 
front part of an improper shoe ; C, toes crowded out of position as result of 
wearing such an improper shoe. 

soles, an unnatural mincing gait, not unattended with 
danger, is the result. The weight of the body is thrown 
forward upon the toes, the ligaments of the various joints 
are strained, especially those of the spinal column, knees, 
ankles, and toes. The muscles of the back of the leg are 



1 At the present time proper boots and shoes are made "to order " by some 
"anatomical boot and shoe makers," but are generally too expensive for 
ordinary use. Ready-made foot coverings generally follow the fashion, and if 
found properly constructed are almost sure to be "out of style." 



CLOTHING. 



67 



deprived of their important share of work, and overriding 
and other deformities of the toes are, produced. In some 
instances important tendons which pass around the outer 
ankles have been thrown out of their grooves, and lame- 
ness has resulted. 

106. Boots and shoes should fit the feet snugly, 
especially over the instep, but should allow free move- 
ments of the various joints. They should have broad 
soles, low and broad heels, should not cramp the toes, 
should be hollowed out but little if at all on the inner 




Fig. 30. 
An improper shoe. 



Fig. 31. 
A proper shoe. 



side, and should be so shaped that the weight of the body 
may be borne where nature intended it should be. These 
simple requisites would give us sensible, comfortable, 
aye ! and good-looking foot coverings. 

107. The quantity of clothing should be sufficient to 
keep the body comfortably warm, and should be increased 
or diminished with the change of the season or of the 
temperature. It is important, indeed, that the body 
should become used to the slight changes in temperature 



68 CLOTHING. 

so repeatedly occurring day after day ; but the practice 
of "hardening" by exposure (as is done, for example, 
with the limbs of little children) is often attended with 
danger. 1 Neither is it prudent to throw aside warm 
clothing before the actual onset of warm weather, or to 
delay putting it on till cold weather has far advanced. 

108. On the other hand, too much clothing has also its 
bad effects. It induces free perspiration, which, retained 
in contact with the skin, proves an irritant. The skin, 
from being unaccustomed to the stimulating effects of a 
tonic atmosphere, becomes susceptible to very ordinary 
changes in temperature. Hence, persons who are in the 
habit of wearing thick wrappings about the neck, such as 
tippets, fur collars, etc., are very liable to throat affections, 
especially if the clothing should be removed where there 
is any draught of air. 2 

As far as possible, clothing should cover all parts of the 
body equally. Hence, padding a part of the clothing, 
while other portions are made quite thin, is objectionable. 
So, too, "full dress," in the fashionable sense, is not full 
enough in a cold room, or on going out of an overheated 
room in cold weather. Warmth, however, depends more 
upon the material and structure of the clothing than upon 
the quantity. 

1 Proper care of the skin, by systematic bathing and well-regulated cloth- 
ing, will in reality "harden," while exposure of tender skins is dangerous to 
health and life. 

2 "A regiment of infantry, according to Baron Percy, being on their march 
in hot and stormy weather, the soldiers became heated and out of breath. 
The colonel permitted them to take off their stocks. Soon afterwards they 
entered a gorge of the Vosges, exposed to the north-west wind, without cover- 
ing the neck. On the following day 73 soldiers were sent to the hospital, the 
greater part attacked with inflammatory sore throat, and in a few days more 
than 300 others were taken sick, apparently from the same exposure." — 
Dunglison on Human Health. 



CLOTHING. 69 

109. Lightness, proper ventilation, and ivarmtli are the 
three desirable qualities in clothing, and may be combined 
in a loosely-woven cloth, whose meshes contain confined 
air. Air is one of the best non-conductors of heat known ; 
but if left free, it abstracts heat also by promoting evapor- 
ation from the skin, and by keeping up a continual contact 
of fresh unwarmed particles. But confined air prevents 
rapid evaporation as well as radiation and the actual contact 
of colder bodies. Hence mittens, as containing more con- 
fined air, and also because the fingers are in contact, are 
warmer than gloves. Two pairs of cotton stockings are 
greatly conducive to comfort, because of the warmed air 
between them. Two undershirts sometimes give more 
comfort than an overcoat, and are an especial protection 
against sudden exposure. Felt shoes are warmer than 
leather ones. So, woollen stockings drawn over shoes 
keep the feet in a more comfortable condition when walk- 
ing through snow than even thick shoes. The "clouds" 
worn by ladies as head covering are both light and very 
warm. 1 

110. Clothing that is much worn needs a texture that 
will admit fresh air through it, or should be so arranged 



1 A few folds of newspaper put between two blankets or otber covers, to 
keep them smooth, will furnish sufficient bed-clothing for a bitter winter's 
night. In addition to the superior non-conducting quality of paper, its porosity- 
allows of a ready escape of the insensible perspiration without the cooling- 
effects of evaporation. The sleeper is kept, therefore, dry and warm, and 
never experiences that clammy dampness which results from thicker bed- 
clothing ; nor does he suffer from an oppressing weight. To the rattle of the 
paper he will soon accustom himself. Paper has also been used to advantage 
in the shape of uudervests, and in the soles of shoes. 

As to bed-clothing, so-called "comfortables" are sometimes very uncom- 
fortable, on account of their weight, which impedes the circulation and pre- 
vents the escape of the insensible perspiration, and the sleeper awakes in the 
morning damp and even uncomfortably cold. 



70 CLOTHING. 

that the air may pass beneath it. Tightly-woven and 
close-fitting underclothing, and impervious rubber outer 
garments, retain the impurities from the skin in contact 
with it. Much better are the loosely-woven, net-like under- 
garments now made, and the gossamer rubber ones, which 
in some instances are ventilated by valve-like openings 
under the arms and on the back. While it is prudent to 
provide ourselves with overcoats, wraps, and rubber gar- 
ments during a storm, they should be removed, or at least 
unfastened, when in-doors or not exposed to the fury of 
the elements. 

111. Wet clothing chills the skin, cools the air in con- 
tact with it, hinders the escape of impurities, and should 
be removed as soon as possible and the body made dry and 
warm, and dry clothing substituted. If caught in a storm, 
when unprovided with wraps, etc., the increased animal 
heat afforded by walking or other continuous exercise will 
usually avert evil consequences. 

As with day clothing, so that of the night, including 
bed coverings, should be light, dry, airy, and warm. There 
should be a complete change of clothing at night. Much 
of the wakefulness and feverishness then experienced is 
undoubtedly due, if not to impure air, to unaired clothing. 
As Miss Nightingale puts it: "Feverishness is generally 
supposed to be a symptom of fever, — in nine cases out of 
ten it is a symptom of bedding." 

Unclean clothing, besides keeping the skin in a foul con- 
dition, is most liable to become a receptacle for germs of 
disease. Clothing worn by attendants in cases of scarlet 
fever, small pox, or other contagious disease, is a constant 
source of contagion, and should be destroyed by fire as 
soon as possible, (a.) 



CLOTHING. 71 

112. Color in dress is not merely a matter of taste, but, 
in a physiological sense also, is no unimportant considera- 
tion. Benjamin Franklin first demonstrated, by means of 
various colored cloths placed upon the surface of snow, 
that black, under the sun's rays, was the warmest color, 
and white the coolest. 1 Dark colors, — black, blue, etc., 
— are considered best for general use in cold weather; 
and white, gray, etc., in hot. 2 

Owing to the demand for cheap and bright-colored 
clothing, those of poor and rough material, colored with 
cheap and poisonous dyes containing arsenic, copper, etc., 
are quite often thrown upon the market. Colored socks, 
tights, under-shirts, chest protectors, linings of hats, boot- 
tops and gloves, have often, in consequence, been found 

1 Of cloth of different material exposed to the suns rays — 

" White Cotton received 100° F. of heat. 

" Linen received 98° F. of heat. 

" Flannel received 102° F. of heat. 

" Silk received 108° F. of heat." 

Of shirtings of different colors so exposed — 

" White received 100° F. 

Pale straw color received 102° F. 

Dark yellow received 140° F. 

Light green received 155° F. 

Dark green received 168° F. 

Turkish red received 165° F. 

Light blue received 198° F. 

Black received 208° F." 

— Diet, of Hygiene and Public Health. By A. Wynter Blyth and Prof. 
Tardieu. 

2 ' ' Clothing has frequently been the agent through which infectious disease 
has been propagated. Judging from Stark's observations on the power of 
absorbing odors, the probability is that contagion is absorbed after the same 
manner. Stark found that the absorption of odors was in proportion to the 
hygroscopic absorption, and that it depended in a great measure upon color, — 
black absorbing most, then blue, red, green, yellow, and lastly white. For a 
nurse a dark woollen garment is the worst, and light-colored cotton best." — 
Diet, of Hygiene and Public Health. London. 



72 CLOTHING. 

to be poisonous. The dyes act with especial force in hot 
weather, when by perspiration they are dissolved out. 1 

113. In our variable climate woollen under-garments 
of varying thicknesses for the different seasons should be 
worn. Intermediate garments, such as waists and vests, 
may be more closely woven, and made with especial refer- 
ence to wear, while the outer garments can be arranged 
with greater regard to the mere appearance. Woollen or 
silk cloth is a better retainer of heat than cotton or linen. 
The open texture of woollen cloth is filled with confined 
air, and its ability to retain moisture, whether from the 
skin or from outside, prevents the cooling effects of a 
rapid evaporation. Hence flannel and merino, in our 
changeable climate, make excellent under, intermediate, 
or outer garments. 2 

114. Silk is the next most suitable material, especially 
for under-garments ; then cotton ; and lastly linen. Linen 

1 So frequent have such cases of poisoning become that in some States special 
laws have been enacted in behalf of the sufferer against the manufacturer. 

"The symptoms produced vary somewhat; usually they consist in redness 
and staining of the part, followed by swelling, itching, and smarting, with the 
formation of little blisters or vesicles, which break and give exit to a discharge. 
The part affected then becomes decidedly painful, and is occasionally greatly 
swollen. There is also a great deal of constitutional disturbance, and in fact 
the sufferer is quite ill. The peculiar staining of the skin, coinciding with the 
particular hue and pattern (bars, stripes, etc.) of the colored article, at once 
suggests the cause of the mischief." — The Skin and its Troubles. Health 
Primer. London. 

2 The favorite receipt of the celebrated English physician, John Hunter, 
for the rearing of children, was " plenty of milk, plenty of sleep, and plenty 
of flannel." It is stated by physicians in hot countries that the wearing of 
wide flannel bandages (doubled) over the abdomen is a capital safeguard 
against cholera and bowel affections, and against a sudden check of the per- 
spiration. Street laborers, soldiers, factorymen, etc., find by experience that 
they can wear flannel with comfort when exposed to varying changes in the 
atmosphere and at hard work. It is said that in rainy weather sailors wring 
out the water from their woollen jackets and put them on again, seldom 
catching cold. 



CLOTHING. 73 

being a good conductor, and thin and closely woven, is 
too cool for winter use, or for an under garment when the 
wearer is working hard, or is exposed to a changeable 
climate, or in factories where there is great heat, and 
the opening of doors, windows, flues, etc., causes draughts 
of air. For those whose skins are irritated by flannel, 
linen, cotton, or silk garments may be worn next the skin, 
with flannel over them. 1 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Why does clothing keep us comfortable, and what other use 

has it? 

2. What are the evil effects of tight clothing ? Illustrate. 

3. What of too tight or too heavy clothing, respectively? 

4. What are the three desirable qualities in clothing, and how are 

they best combined ? 

5. How and why may air be made useful in our clothing? Illustrate. 

6. Why should clothing have ventilation ? 

7. What are the bad effects of wet clothing ? 

8. Of what sort should our bed covering be ? 

9. What may result from unclean clothing? 

10. Of what importance is the color of clothing ? 

11. What bad effects have improper dyes? 

12. What is to be said of the different materials in clothing? 



1 For a close head covering (nightcaps, for instance), silk, because of its 
superior non-conducting property, is, to such as require a cool head, the very 
worst. 



74 



ANALYSIS. 



ANALYSIS OF THE FIFTH, SIXTH, AND SEVENTH 
CHAPTERS. 



THE SKIN. 

I. Anatomy. 

Epidermis, — Cells. 

'Connective tissue' 
Fat 

1. Structure . . ■( Dermis . . -I Blood-vessels 

Nerves 
^ Lymphatics 
Sub-cutaneous connective tissue. 
fHair. 

2. Appendages . -< Glands, — sebaceous and sweat. 

[ Nails. 

II. Physiology. 



Color derived 

from pigment 

and blood. 



1. Functions 



1. Bathing . . . < 



"A protective covering. 
An organ of sensation. 
An organ of excretion. 
A regulator of temperature. 
An organ of absorption. 
An accessory organ of breathing. 

III. Hygiene. 

r tt ( To assist the skin in discharging its functions. 
I To promote health and fortify against disease. 
Proper and improper bathing. 
Effects of. 
Times for. f Hot. 

Warm. 
Tepid. 
Temperate. 
Cool. 
LCold. 
f Fresh. 
4 Salt. 
[ Mineral. 

c. Vapor or Russian. 

d. Air, — [Hot or Turkish. Cold]. 
^e. Sun. Mud. Broth. Blood, etc. 
f Friction. 

.. Adjuncts . -I Soap. 

[inunction. 



Baths 



As to temperature < 



b. As to water . 



ANALYSIS. 



T5 



Hygiene. 



Continued. 



2. Clothing 



fUses 



Proper and 
improper 



(•To prevent loss of f ^f Won. 

To protect externally from heat and 

other sources of injury. 
As a covering. 
I As an ornament. 
r Fit. 
Quantity. 

("Dry and damp. 
Ventilation. 



Condition 



] Cleanliness. 

I As to contagion. 



Color and dyes. 

Linen . 

Material. . J Cotton - 
Wool. 

s Silk, etc. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DIGESTION. -THE CONVERSION OF 
FOOD INTO TISSUES. 

115. So far, we have studied the structure and uses 
of the bones, muscles, fat, and skin. We are now to 
consider various structures for the most part within the 
skeleton ; viz., the digestive organs, heart, blood-vessels, 
lungs, etc.; and, in connection with these structures, those 
processes which, because of their importance, are ordinarily 
distinguished as the vital processes, — such as digestion, 
circulation, respiration, and the production and mainte- 
nance of animal heat and nervous energy. 

116. The maintenance of Ufe depends upon the vitality 
of the innumerable cells of which each body is composed, 
and this vitality is largely influenced by food. 1 "From 
the food the blood is fed ; from the blood the tissues are 
fed." The conversion of food in the body into blood is 
called digestion. The digestive organs consist of the ali- 
mentary canal and its accessory organs. 

117. The alimentary canal is a muscular membranous 
tube, in adults from 25 to 30 feet in length, or about five 
times as long as the entire body. It begins at the mouth, 
and extends downward throughout the body. In it the 
digestion of food is performed. It is lined throughout its 

1 See, in Introduction, remarks about "cell life." 



THE CONVEBSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 



77 



entire length with a delicate but firm tissue, which is con- 
tinuous with a similar lining of the air passages, the whole 







Fig. 32. 
The alimentary canal.— M s mouth; P, pharynx; OE, oesophagus; S, stomach; 
CO, its cardiac opening ; PO, its pyloric opening ; SI, small intestine ; VA, 
vermiform appendix ; LI, large intestine ; R, rectum ; OB, gall bladder ; 
BD, bile duct ; PD, pancreatic duct ; DO, opening of the common duct 
into small intestines. Accessory digestive organs :L, liver; P, pancreas; 
S, 6pleen. 

being known as the mucous membrane, or "internal skin." 1 
This varies in thickness and general arrangement in dif- 



1 From a similarity to the external skin. 



78 DIGESTION. 

ferent portions of the canal, and contains numerous folli- 
cles for secretion and excretion, and its surface is covered 
with cells variously arranged. 1 In addition to the digestive 
fluids which it secretes, it is supplied with a viscid fluid 
called mucus, which protects it and enables its opposing 
surfaces to glide easily upon each other in the various 
movements of the canal incident to digestion. 2 The 
alimentary canal varies in its different portions in size, 
form, and structure, thereby forming the mouth, pharynx, 
oesophagus, stomach, and intestines. 

118. The mouth and its appendages (the cheeks, lips, 
tongue, teeth, etc.) are concerned in the earlier steps of 
digestion, and in health are supplied with a fluid called 
the saliva. 

119. Behind the mouth, and at the first bend of the 
alimentary canal downward, is the pharynx. This is, in 
general, funnel shaped, bat with its upper portion, or roof, 
rounded like a buggy top. It is partly separated from 
the mouth by a very movable curtain-like muscular flap 
called the soft palate, to distinguish it from the hard 
palate, which is the roof of the mouth and is composed 
of bone covered with mucous membrane. Above and 



1 In the nose and air passages it is thin and smooth, in the mouth and 
throat somewhat thicker, upon the tongue it is covered with papillae, in the 
small intestine with very soft projections called villi, and in the stomach it 
is thrown into ridges. The cells covering the surface of the mucous membrane 
are epithelial cells, and together constitute the epithelium. 

2 Ordinarily, in health, there is just sufficient mucus to act as a lubricant. 
But in some, young children especially, whose tissues are very sensitive, an 
excess of mucus is readily induced by an irritation of the mucus membrane, 
through indigestible food, exposure of the skin to sudden changes in tempera- 
ture, and by other means. This excess of mucus may, by coating proper food, 
interfere with its digestion. On the other hand, if the mucous membrane is 
not torn, injured, or diseased, such an excess by coating improper articles 
which have been swallowed, — such as coin, — will generally prevent any 
injury that might otherwise result from them. 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 



79 



behind the soft palate, the pharynx communicates with 
the nose by two openings, one for each nostril, known as 
the "posterior nares." In the upper and back portion of 




Fig. 33. 
A vertical section through the middle of the face, neck, and upper vertebrae. — 
1, Cavity in the skull ; 2, opening of left Eustachian tube ; 3, the hard 
palate; 4, the soft palate; 5, muscular wall in front of tonsil ; 6, muscular 
wall behind the tonsil ; 7, the left tonsil ; 8, pharynx, or throat ; 9, the 
epiglottis; 10, the hyoid bone; 11, oesophagus; 12, the cavity of larynx. • 



the throat, on a line with the "floor of the nose," are the 
openings of two ducts, named the Eustachian tubes, which 
connect the mouth with the organs of hearing. At the 
lower portion of the throat, in front, is the larynx, which 



80 



DIGESTION. 



opens into the windpipe. Surrounding the pharynx are 
three obliquely-placed muscles, styled the constrictors of 

the pharynx. These overlap each 
other, and with other muscles are 
concerned in the act of swallowing. 

120. The oesophagus, or gullet, 
is the next portion of the ali- 
mentary canal, and connects the 
pharynx with the stomach. It is 
about nine inches long, and lies 
upon the front and upper portion 
of the spinal column. Its walls 
contain both longitudinal and cir- 
cular involuntary muscular fibres, 
which, by their alternate contrac- 
tion and relaxation, serve to propel 
the contents of the oesophagus 
towards the stomach. The wave- 
like motion thus resulting is called 




Fig. 34. 



The location of the constrictor 
muscles. — L J, the front part of the " peristaltic motlOll, aild is 
lower jaw, the remainder heing 

cut away to show parts beneath ; similar tO that of the intestines. 1 
HB, the hyoid bone ; TO, thyroid 
cartilage of larynx; CC, cricoid 
cartilage of larynx; T, trachea; 
OE, oesophagus ; CM, the con- 
strictor muscles — superior, mid- 
dle, and inferior. 



121. The stomach is somewhat 
pear shaped, its larger end being 
upon the left side of the body, 
beneath the ribs, in contact with the spleen, to which it is 
joined by a ligament of connective tissue. The smaller 
end is on the right side of the body, under the liver. 
When moderately filled, the length of the stomach is from 
thirteen to fifteen inches, and its greatest diameter five 
inches. 2 Its capacity is about five pints. 

1 This peculiar motion is also called " vermicular," or worm-like. 

2 Its form and position vary in one and the same individual at different 
times. When empty, it is shrunken and flattened. In the infant the stomach 



THE CONVERSION OE EOOD INTO TISSUES. 



81 



The stomach has two openings : one where the oesophagus 
enters, called the cardiac 1 opening, because of its location 
near the heart, from which it is separated by the dia- 
phragm 2 ; the other is styled the pyloric 2, or "gate" open- 




Fig. 35. 

The muscles of the stomach, one portion removed to show underlying fihres. 

ing, because it is provided with a muscular valve known 
as the pylorus, or "gate-keeper," the object of which is to 
prevent the premature exit of food from the stomach. 4 

is almost perpendicular at times, hence vomiting is easily induced. The 
stomach of the glutton becomes distended, and does not readily regain its 
normal shape, and indigestion results. 

1 Derived from the Greek KxpSia, meaning "heart." 

2 When the stomach is over distended, it sometimes presses upon the heart, 
giving rise to the symptoms of heart disease. 

3 Derived from a Greek word, meauing " gate." 

4 When the stomach contains a large amount of indigestible food, and has 
been over long in action, its muscular tone diminishes, and the valve is no 
longer effectual to prevent the exit of improper material. But, fortunately, 
for this very reason, indigestible substances accidentally swallowed (such as 
coins, beads, etc.) can, on the relaxing of the muscular activity of the organ, 
pass the "gate-keeper," though sometimes their passage is greatly delayed 
and causes much discomfort. 



DIGESTION. 



122. The lining of the stomach is very soft and deli- 
cate. When the cavity is almost or entirely empty, it is 
arranged in folds. It is amply supplied with blood-vessels, 




Fig. 36. 

The internal surface of the stomach, from which the epithelium has been removed, 
showing the openings of gastric glands. [Magnified 20 diameters.] 



mucous glands, and gastric tubules, or follicles. These 
last secrete a thin, acid fluid, known as the gastric juice. 
Its quantity is increased by condiments, 
and its flow facilitated by the odor and 
appearance of appetizing food; on the 
other hand, the quantity is diminished 
by fear, anxiety, anger, grief, etc., and 
also by that depression which follows 
excessive eating and drinking. 

The muscles in the walls of the 
stomach, and outside of its mucous 
membrane, are involuntary, and arc 
arranged in three layers, — the oblique, 

Fig. 37.-A gastric gland. the circular? and the longitudinal. 

Their alternate contraction and relaxation serve to agitate 
thoroughly the contents of the stomach. 




THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 83 

123. The remaining portion of the alimentary canal 
consists of the intestines, or " bowels," which occupy the 
abdominal cavity, and are divided into the small and 
large intestines, — the former being from twenty to twenty- 
five, and the latter about five feet in length. 

124. The small intestine, so named on account of its 
calibre, is a cylindrical conduit, coiled upon itself and 
extending from the pylorus to the large intestine, its 
opening into which is guarded by the ileo-coecal valve, 1 
an arrangement which readily admits of the passage into 
the large intestine of refuse material, but interposes a 
very considerable barrier to its return. In the walls of 
the intestine, throughout nearly its entire length, are in- 
voluntary muscular fibres, which are abundantly supplied 
with a network of nerves. 2 

The intestine is held in place by the mesentery, 
which is a double fold of serous membrane 3 attached to 
the spinal column ; but it so envelopes the intestine that 
its necessary peristaltic movements in the transmission of 
food are not interfered with. 4 

The lining of the intestine is very vascular and velvety, 
and throughout the larger part of the canal is arranged 
in transverse shelf-like folds more or less circular in form ; 



i See Fig. 32. 

2 "Invariably the contraction of the muscular tissue, like that of every 
form of voluntary and involuntary muscle, takes place under the influence of 
the nerves. Besides the nerves, distributed in networks and plexuses to the 
mucous membrane and muscles in great number, there is a highly complex 
system of ganglia, or nerve-centres, little appreciated, and indeed hardly 
known to more than a few observers. ... So numerous are the fine nerve- 
fibres, that there is not a portion of tissue the z^o^- of an inch in width which 
does not receive an abundant supply." — Slight Ailments. L. S. Beale, M.D. 

3 A membrane which secretes a thin whey-like fluid called serum. 

4 A similar membrane, under the name of the peritoneum, encloses, for the 
most part, all the abdominal viscera in the same way. 



84 



DIGESTION. 



which, from their winking motion as they sway backward 
and forward in the fluids of the intestine, are called 
valvulae conniventes. There are about 800 of these delicate 
folds. They retard the passage of food, and provide a 
very large surface for secretion and absorption. 

The characteristic velvety condition of the mucous 
membrane is due to its numerous cone-like elevations, 
presenting an appearance like plush, and known as the 
intestinal villi. There are more than 10,000,000 of these 




Fig 38. 

Villi of small intestine, with their superficial arteries and veins distended. 

[Magnified 100 diameters.] 

villi. Within them are numerous minute blood-vessels 
(veins) which empty into a large vein, called the portal 
vein, which conveys to the liver certain products of 
digestion. They contain also other vessels, known as 
lacteals, 1 which are a part of a wonderful system of vessels 
distributed throughout the body, called the lymphatics? 



1 So called, because during the process of digestion these minute vessels 
have a white appearance like milk, from a fluid within them called chyle. At 
other times they are not readily discerned. 

2 See § 249. 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 



85 



These lacteals commence probably as blind extremities in 
the intestinal villi, and empty into the receptaculum chyli 
(i.e., receptacle of the chyle), a pouch lying upon the 
lumbar vertebrae. This pouch connects with the thoracic 
duct, a tube quill-like in size, which 
extends upwards and empties into the 
left subclavian vein, the large vein under 
the left clavicle, or collar bone. 

In the mucous membrane of the in- 
testine are numerous follicles, some of 
which secrete mucus and some a diges- 
tive fluid known as intestinal juice. 
Within about three inches of the pylorus 
the duct from the gall bladder of the 
liver, and that from the pancreas, open 
into the intestine, admitting the bile 
and pancreatic juice. 

125. The large intestine begins at the 
ileo-coecal valve, in the right lower 
portion of the abdominal cavity, ascends 
upon the right side of the cavity, crosses 
over to the left underneath the stomach, 
and descends upon the left side, ter- 
minating the alimentary canal. The 
commencement of the large intestine is styled the caecum. 
This is a rounded cavity, and has a cylindrical tube from 
one to five inches long projecting from its lower portion, 
which tube is known as the appendix vermiformis. Its 
uses are not known. Sometimes seeds of small fruit 
lodge in it, and cause serious disease, which may result 
in death. 




Fig. 39. 
A vertical section of an 
intestinal villus. — a, epi- 
thelial cells; b b, blood- 
vessels entering and leav- 
ing the villus; d, lym- 
phatic vessel (lacteal) in 
the centre. 



126. The accessory digestive organs are the teeth, sali- 
vary glands, liver, and pancreas. The spleen has, up to 



86 DIGESTION. 

within a recent period, been considered as one of these 
accessory organs, though its function is not definitely 
known. The principal effect produced "in animals by its 
removal is an inordinate craving for food. It is now 
believed that the spleen takes part in the elaboration of 
blood. 1 

127. The teeth are the organs of mastication or chew- 
ing. By them the food is thoroughly broken up into 
minute fragments, and thus prepared for the softening 
and digestive action of the saliva. They assist also in the 
use of the voice, and preserve the symmetry of the face. 
Their position in the jaws is secured by " roots " inserted 
firmly into sockets, and by the support afforded by the 
gums, which are composed of dense fibrous tissue, covered 
with mucous membrane. 2 

The part of a tooth projecting from the gum is known 
as the crown, and is covered by the enamel, which is 
the hardest substance in the body. But though capable, 
ordinarily, of resisting great pressure, it may be broken, 
and the decay of the teeth rendered probable, by the crack- 
ing of hard shell nuts or other hard substances between 
them. 3 

The bulk of the tooth is composed of dentine, a 
substance resembling bone, but without canaliculi and 
lacunae. It is often called tooth-bone or ivory. The 

1 " The spleen ... is not immediately concerned with the processes of diges- 
tion, and its developmental origin shows it to he unconnected with the digestive 
organs, although it lies in the abdomen. ... It is now generally admitted 
that the functions of the spleen are intimately connected with the work of 
sanguinification . . . The spleen is most probably one of the seats of forma- 
tion of the white blood corpuscles and of destruction of the red. It is, in fact, 
a blood-lymph-gland." — Quain's Diet, of Medicine. Wm. Aitken, 1882. 

2 In old people who have lost their teeth, the gums shrink and sometimes 
become very hard, enabling the owner to munch his food with them. 

3 The hardness of the enamel varies in different persons. In some it is so 
soft that the teeth wear down almost to the gums. 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 8< 

dentine encloses a cavity in the tooth, which is termed the 
pulp cavity, and which contains the pulp, a substance 
consisting of connective tissue, blood-vessels, and terminal 
nerves. The nerves and blood-vessels enter this cavity 
through a small opening at the tip of 
each root. 1 Canals radiate from the 
pulp cavity to the outer surface of the 
dentine. Destruction of the enamel at 
any point, therefore, exposes the entire 
cavity, and decay results. (#.) 




128. There are two sets of teeth. 



Fig. 40. 
A vertical section of tooth. 

that of early childhood, known as the mm'; o, o, 'openings in 

p. . .-, roots for the passage of 

first, primary, or temporary set, or the nerves and blood-vessels 

, n _ , into the pulp cavity, rep- 

milk teeth; and the second, or perma- resented" in figure hy 

darkened centre. 

nent set, of youth and ot adult lite. 

The temporary set has twenty teeth, ten in each jaw. 
The four in the front of each jaw are the incisors, or 
" cutters." They have chisel-like or wedge-shaped edges, 
Avhich enable us to bite or cut our food. Adjoining the 
incisors are the canines, 2 one on each side of each jaw. 
These teeth are somewhat pointed at the edges, after the 
manner of the teeth of dogs. They assist the incisors in 
dividing the food. The remaining teeth of the temporary 
set are the molars, 3 or "grinders," two on each side of 
each jaw. These teeth pulverize the food, and in the 
permanent set are especially strong. Their grinding sur- 



1 The pulp supplies nourishment to the tooth. When it dies the tooth loses 
its translucency and sensibility, and is discolored ; aud if it he a tooth of the 
permanent set, is never replaced hy a new one, or even by new tooth-struc- 
ture, but may retain its position in the jaw and do duty for years. 

2 That is, "dogteeth," so called from the Latin cards, a dog. The upper 
canines are sometimes called "eye teeth/* the lower ones "stomach teeth," 
though they have no peculiar relation to these organs. 

c From the Latin molar is, a grindstone. 



88 



DIGESTION. 



faces are grooved, and upon them are three or four conical 
elevations, more or less marked. The first tooth of the 
temporary set is cut usually about the sixth or seventh 
month of life, the last about the end of the second year. 1 

The teeth of the permanent set are larger and much 
stronger than those of the first set. They are thirty-two 




Fig. 41. 
A diagram of two upper jaws, representing the location, arrangement, and time 
of eruption of the temporary and permanent teeth. The relation of the tem- 
porary to the permanent teeth is indicated by their position, and by dotted 
lines connecting them with the permanent teeth. The numerals represent, in 
one instance, the time of the appearance of the teeth in years ; in the other, 
in months. — I, incisor teeth; C, canine teeth; B, bicuspid teeth; M, molar 
teeth. 

i;i number, — sixteen in each jaw ; viz., four incisors, two 
canines, four bicuspids, 2 and six molars. The bicuspids, 
found in the permanent set only, are between the canines 
and molars, two on each side of each jaw. They are 
shorter and thicker than the canines, and assist the molars 



1 Babies are sometimes born with teeth ; but from various causes, such as 
sickness, hereditary peculiarities, lack of proper tooth-forming food, etc., the 
appearance of the teeth may be delayed till one year of age, or even longer. 

2 So called, because they have two cusps or points upon their crowns. 



THE CONVEKSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 



89 



in crushing the food. The permanent teeth originate near 
the roots of the temporary teeth, and as they develop, 
press upon these roots and cause their absorption, the 
temporary teeth being eventually shed as little conical 




Fig. 42. 
Section of jaws, showing the temporary and permanent teeth. 

" crowns " with convex bases. The first tooth of the per- 
manent set appears about the fifth or sixth year, and the 
last, or wisdom teeth, about the twenty-fourth year. 1 



1 The first permanent teeth appear behind the posterior milk molars, before 
any of the milk teeth are shed ; viz., at six years, so that a child of six has 
twenty-four teeth, — twenty temporary and four permanent. The permanent 
teeth usually appear as follows : — 

The First molars at the 6th year, sometimes called the " six year " molars. 
Central incisors at the 7th year. 
Lateral incisors at the 8th year. 

Anterior bicuspids at the 9th year, replacing first milk molars. 
Posterior bicuspids at the 10th year, replacing posterior molars. 
Canines at the 11th to 12th year. 
Second molars at the 12th to 13th year, sometimes called "twelve 

year" molars. 
Third molars at the 17th to 25th year. 



90 



DIGESTION. 



129. Iii mastication, the lower jaw is pressed against 
the stationary upper jaw with lateral, rotary, and upward 
movements, by means of powerful muscles. The size and 
strength of the permanent molars, and their broad and 
irregular upper surfaces, well adapt them for this grinding 
action. 1 







Fig. 43. (White.) 

The connection of the nerves of the teeth with the sensitive nerves of the face 

and head. 



1 These movements of the jaws are very marked in herbivorous animals, 
such as the cow and horse. In such animals the other teeth are sometimes 
rudimentary, but the molar teeth are very large, and present broad, grooved 
surfaces, somewhat like the ridges and depressions in the grinding surfaces 
of millstones. 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 91 

The teeth of the human being combine the charac- 
teristics of those of the carnivora and herbivora, — that 
is to say, are adapted for masticating both animal and 
vegetable food. The first appearance of teeth indicates 
that other food than milk can now be used, while the 
cutting of the permanent teeth shows that food which 
requires much chewing is to be included in a proper 
diet. 

130. It is a popular fallacy that the permanent teeth 
alone require care, and that it is a matter of no importance 
whether the temporary teeth decay or not. In point of 
fact, proper care of the temporary set often insures a 
regular and strong permanent set. The temporary teeth 
in healthy children should not decay, but should fall out 
clean and white when their function is ended. They are, 
however, if not cared for, more liable to decay than per- 
manent teeth, on account of the larger proportion of animal 
matter they contain. For this reason the condition of the 
teeth of children should be carefully ascertained, and 
defects remedied at least twice a year by a reliable dentist. 1 
In addition to the difficulty of mastication, and the tooth- 
ache caused by decay of teeth, an excruciating pain in the 
side of the face and head (i.e., neuralgia) results, from an 
extension of the irritation from the small nerve in the 
tooth pulp to the large nerves of the face and head. 



1 Cavities in the temporary as well as in the permanent teeth should he 
filled when possible. The premature extraction of a tooth may destroy the 
symmetry of the jaws, and allow the opposing tooth to grow to an uncomfort- 
able length. In rabbits a tooth thus deprived of its opposing one grows like a 
tusk. Much can be accomplished by competent dentists towards regulating 
the direction of the teeth and the shape of the jaws. The excess of animal 
matter in the osseous tissue of young children accounts for the deformed upper 
jaws, with the projecting front teeth, which sometimes results from long con- 
tinued thumb-sucking. 



92 DIGESTION. 

131. Teetli, as well as bones, require a certain propor- 
tion of mineral matter, which should be supplied by proper 
food. They should be kept clean by frequent rinsing 
with water, and by the gentle but firm use of a small and 
rather soft brush, especially upon the inner side of the 
teeth, in the morning and before retiring. 1 Every particle 
of foreign matter should be removed from between the 
teeth by a quill or wooden tooth-pick, or, when necessary, 
by drawing a thread or thin strip of rubber between the 
teeth. 2 

132. Acid or gritty powders, or mixtures including 
charcoal, are to be avoided. Prepared chalk, or " camphor 
and chalk powder," or chalk and orris root, or even com- 
mon salt, may be used to advantage. If the secretions of 
the mouth are acid, a mouth wash of a weak solution of 
sodium bicarbonate (one-fourth teaspoonful to two ounces 
of water) is serviceable ; or, lime water, flavored with 
liquid extract of licorice. To remove odors, a wash of 
two or three drops of carbolic acid in a half tumbler of 
water, or a solution of common salt, is useful. 

133. Of the accessory organs of digestion, the next to 
be considered are the salivary glands. The most important 
of these are : 1st. The parotids? one in front of and be- 
low each ear, with a duct opening into the mouth about 
opposite each second upper molar tooth. 2d. The two sub- 
maxillary glands, just within the angles of the lower jaw, 



1 Frequent scrubbing of the teeth with large and hard brushes is injurious. 

2 Pins, knife-blades, and other metallic substances should never be used as 
tooth-picks, for they are liable to injure the enamel. 

8 Called parotid, from two Greek words meaning near the ear. These 
glands are sometimes called masticatory glands, as they are only found in 
animals furnished with grinding or masticating teeth. The disease known as 
mnmps is an inflammation of one or both of these glands. 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 



93 




whose ducts open under the tongue at its junction with 
the under surface of the mouth. 3d. The two sub-lingual, 
which are the smallest of the salivary glands, and are 
situated under the tongue, and discharge their secretion 
by ducts near the opening of the 
ducts from the sub-maxillary 
glands. 1 

The secretions from these 
glands, together with that from 
the glands of the general mucous 
surface of the mouth, constitute 
the saliva. This secretion is a 
thin alkaline fluid, whose func- 
tion it is to dissolve sapid par- 
ticles of food, thus enabling us 
to taste, to soften food so that it 
may be the more readily chewed 
and swallowed, to keep the 
mouth moist and lubricated, and, finally, to transform 
some of the starch in food. 

From one to three pounds of saliva are secreted per 
day in a man of average size, the quantity increasing with 
the hardness and dryness of the food. It is also increased 
by the movements of the lower jaw in mastication, by 
anything introduced into the mouth, but especially by 
those things which stimulate the sense of taste. Its flow 
is largely under the influence of the nervous system. On 
the one hand, the mere thought or smell of agreeable food 
will " make the mouth water." On the other, under the 
influence of anger, fear, etc., the tongue, in its dryness, is 
said to " cleave to the roof of the mouth." 



Fig. 44. 
Diagram showing the location and 
relations of the salivary glands of 
the left side, a large part of the 
lower jaw being removed. — T, the 
tongue ; LJ, part of the lower jaw ; 
PG-, the parotid gland ; SLG, the 
sub-lingual gland; SMG-, the sub- 
maxillary gland. 



1 Sometimes, by looking into a mirror at the reflection of one's open mouth, 
the tongue being raised, drops of saliva maybe seen to issue from the openings 
of the ducts under the tongue. 



94 DIGESTION. 

134. The pancreas is an elongated fleshy organ near to, 
and just behind the stomach. It secretes the pancreatic 
juice, a viscid, alkaline fluid which is poured into the 
upper portion of the small intestine, as before stated. It 
acts principally upon the fat in food. 

135. The liver is the largest gland in the body. It 
secretes the bile, which is carried by a multitude of fine 
canals within the substance of the liver into a main tube 
which opens into the upper part of the small intestine, as 
before described. Part of the bile, however, passes through 
a branch of this main tube to the gall bladder, there to be 
stored for future use. This reservoir is a pear-shaped 
bag, about three inches in length, attached to the under 
side of the liver. 

In addition to the secretion of bile, the liver has another 
function, which has, within the last few years, been 
especially studied; viz., the "glycogenic" or "sweet pro- 
ducing" function, so named from the substance called 
glycogen. Glycogen is formed in the liver from the 
digested materials brought to that organ by the portal 
vein, but is derived mainly from the starch and sugar 
absorbed in the digestive process. It is formed during 
digestion and stored in the liver, to be gradually trans- 
formed, in the intervals of digestion, into glucose, or a 
sugar similar to grape sugar. 

136. The bile is of a bright yellowish-green color, and 
is constantly secreted ; but the flow is increased soon after 
digestion in the stomach begins. About two and a half 
pounds are secreted per day. The importance of the bile 
is shown by the results of experiments upon the lower 
animals, and by the disturbed conditions following an 
interruption of its usual supply in the human being. If 
the bile be not secreted, or be prevented from entering 



THE CONVEBSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 95 

the small intestine, an animal will become very feeble and 
emaciated, and even die. It is known that the bile assists 
the pancreatic juice in preparing fat for absorption, that it 
assists in the prevention of decomposition and putrefac- 
tion of food during its passage through the intestines, and 
that it increases the muscular action of the intestines. It 
is in part thrown off as an excretion, while some of its 
constituents are re-absorbed, to be converted into carbonic 
acid and water. 

137. The various steps by which food is converted into 
the tissues of the body are : Mastication, In salivation, De- 
glutition, Stomach and Intestinal Digestion, Absorption, 
Circulation, and Assimilation. 

138. When food has been received into the mouth, 
and cut and torn by the incisor and other teeth into 
appropriate pieces, it is then masticated or chewed, and 
for this purpose, by the action of the tongue, lips, and 
cheeks, is rolled about the mouth and placed between the 
lateral teeth, especially the molars, and is mashed and 
ground up into minute fragments. At the same time it is 
softened by insalivation, or a thorough mixture with the 
saliva ; and during this process part of the cooked starch 
in the food is changed into dextrine, and then into glucose, 
and is thus rendered soluble, (a.) 

This change is effected by the ptyaline of the saliva, an 
organic ingredient, which acts as a ferment; i.e., by its 
presence, under the favorable circumstances of heat and 
moisture, it changes the chemical constitution of a sub- 
stance for which it has an affinity. 1 The action of yeast 
in bread-making is a good illustration of the action of a 
ferment. The change in starch begun in the alkaline 

1 Ferment action is sometimes spoken of as catalytic action, or catalysis. 



9(3 DIGESTIOH. 

secretions of the mouth probably ceases as the food reaches 
the stomach, but is resumed amid the alkaline secretions 
in the small intestine. 

139. The food having been properly prepared, is then 
moved towards the pharynx to be swallowed. The final 
steps in deglutition are involuntary. As the food or 
drink enters the pharynx, it is grasped by the constrictor 
muscles and hurried on into the oesophagus, — the open- 
ings leading to the lungs, nasal cavities, and ears being 
usually protected from its ingress by the approximation 
of their walls, and by the raising of the soft palate. 
If the mechanism of swallowing is disturbed by exces- 
sive laughing or talking, or by rapid swallowing, food, 
especially the fluid portion, is liable to enter the larynx or 
nose, and cause coughing, sneezing, and sometimes serious 
results unless prompt aid be furnished. 1 

The passage of the food or drink to the stomach is effect- 
ed by means of the peristaltic action of the oesophagus. 
This action is sufficiently powerful to overcome the laws 
of gravitation. Hence, liquids and solids may some- 
times be swallowed indifferently in all positions of the 
body. 2 

140. Just as soon as the food reaches the stomach, 
stomach digestion begins. The mucous membrane, which 
in the intervals of digestion is of a pale red color, now 
becomes bright red from its engorgement with blood. The 
gastric juice is poured out in abundance. 3 It dissolves the 

1 Sometimes, for example, particles of meat going the "wrong way," lodge 
in the larynx and cause death by suffocation. (See Emergencies, p. 321.) 

2 Even standing on the head, as jugglers often do. 

8 A portion of the gastric secretions (i.e., gastric juice and mucus), inter- 
mingled with the softened and partly digested food, passes into the intestines, 
while the remainder is absorbed by the mucous membrane of the stomach, 
to be again secreted when necessary. 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 97 

connective tissue of meat, releases fat from its envelopes 
by breaking them up, and transforms some of the albu- 
minous material, such as lean meat, the gluten of wheat, 
and white of eggs, into albuminose, in which form such 
articles are capable of being absorbed. 1 This transforma- 
tion is effected by the ferment action of an organic 
ingredient of the gastric juice known as pepsine, 2 in con- 
nection with an acid ingredient; for, if this acid be 
neutralized by an alkali, pepsin e is of little value. 

141. While the above processes are being carried on, 
the fluid portion of the food, both that which has entered 
the stomach as fluid, and that which has been liquefied by 
stomach digestion, is rapidly taken up by the absorbents 
of the stomach and carried into the blood, while the more 
solid portions are thoroughly intermingled with the gastric 
secretions by the churning action of the muscles of the 
stomach. 

142. The unabsorbed food begins slowly to leave the 
stomach in about half an hour after its introduction, 
in the form of a gray semi-fluid, usually called chyme. 
This is a mixture of some of the sugar and salts of the 
food, of transformed starch or glucose, of softened starch, 
of broken fat and connective tissue, and of albuminose. 

143. The entire digestion of an ordinary meal in the 
stomach requires from two to four hours. 3 Some foods 
are thoroughly digested, so far as the stomach is concerned, 
in one hour, and some require as much as five hours, (a.) 

1 The term ' ' peptone ' ' is also applied to albuminous material which has 
been rendered soluble by digestion. 

2 Pepsine, obtained generally from the stomachs of pigs, is used as an 
artificial digestant in certain forms of dyspepsia. 

3 Substances more or less indigestible are acted upon with difficulty. Some- 
times they are thrown up, or pass, after many hours, into the small intestine, 
causing suffering. 



98 DIGESTION. 

The duration of stomach digestion varies also in different 
persons, and in the same persons at different periods. It 
depends in a great measure, not only upon the kind and 
quantity of food taken, but also upon the condition of 
the nervous system, the amount of exercise, etc. 

144. The chyme, upon entering the intestine, comes in 
contact with the bile and the pancreatic and intestinal 
juices. Intestinal digestion now commences. By means of 
these various fluids most of the food not already softened 
is dissolved. The transformation of starch into glucose is 
continued by the action of the pancreatic and intestinal 
juices. 1 The change of albuminous materials into albumi- 
nose is now completed by the pancreatic, assisted probably 
by the intestinal secretions, while fat is broken up into 
minute globules, and an emulsion formed by the pancreatic 
juice, assisted, as some believe, by the bile. 2 

From the digestion in the small intestine there result 
" three different substances ; viz. : 1st. Peptone, from the 
digestion of albuminous matters ; 2d. Chyle, from the 
emulsion of the fats ; and 3d. Glucose, produced by the 
transformation of starch." 3 These substances are, to a 
large extent, carried into the blood and become a part 
of it, while the undigested food passes on into the large 
intestine. 4 

1 The opportunities for the study of intestinal digestion have been fewer 
than for that of other portions of the digestive tract ; hence, less is known 
about it, and at the present time (1884) there is reason to believe that intestinal 
digestion is more complicated than it has been supposed to be. The pancreatic 
juice, for example, is believed to have three active principles, — one to digest 
starch, one to act upon flesh and similar foods, and one to "cause the decom- 
position of the neutral fats with the liberation of a fatty acid." 

2 " Pancreatine," obtained from the pancreas of animals, is much used as 
an artificial digestant. 

3 Dai/ton's Human Physiology. 7th edition. 1882. 

4 The passage of the food through the small intestine is said to occupy, on 
the average, about twelve hours. 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 



99 



145. Absorption, or the process by which liquefied and 
transformed food is taken up by the veins and lacteals, is 
effected by endosmosis. 1 By 
the blood-vessels of the stom- 
ach, water, and whatever is 
dissolved in the gastric juice, 
— viz., some of the albumi- 
noids, sugars, and salts, — are 
rapidly absorbed and carried 
by the blood in the portal vein 
to the liver, together with the 
peptone, glucose, and mole- 
cular fat which has reached 
the portal vein through the 
blood-vessels of the intestinal 
villi. This blood, after tra- 
versing the liver, reaches the 
right side of the heart. On 
the other hand, the chyle, con- 
sisting mainly of emulsified 
fat, but combined with other 
digested materials, passes 
through the lacteals into the 
thoracic duct, together with 
the " lymph" 2 from the lower 
portions of the body, and is 
conveyed to the left sub- 
clavian vein, and so into the 
blood. 3 (Fig. 45.) 




Fig. 45. 

A diagrammatic representation of the 
various organs concerned in the conver- 
sion of food into blood. — 1, The sali- 
vary glands; 2, the oesophagus; 3, the 
stomach ; 4, a portion of the small intes- 
tine; 5, pancreas; 6, the liver; 7, the 
lacteals: 8, receptacle of the chyle; 9, 
the portal vein and its branches ; 10, he- 
patic veins leading from the liver to the 
large ascending vein ; 11, the thoracic 
duct; 12, the large ascending vein, cut 
off at its junction with the heart ; 13, the 
large descending vein, cut off in like 
manner ; 14, the thoracic duct emptying 
its contents into the left subclavian vein. 



1 See Introduction. § 8. 

- A fluid containing some of the results of the decay of tissues, which is 
conveyed to the hlcod by the lymphatics. 

3 It is said that the mixed lymph and chyle move through the thoracic duct 
at the rate of about twelve inches a minute, that the flow i3 aided by valves in 
the duct, and that about six lbs. pass through in twenty-four hours. 



100 DIGESTION. 

146. The process by which the blood carries the digested 
materials to the various tissues of the body is known as 
the circulation, and that by which each cell and tissue 
appropriates material so brought for its growth and de- 
velopment is termed assimilation. 

147. The changes which the transformed and digested 
food undergoes after it reaches the blood may be stated as 
follows: Albuminose is in all probability, for the most 
part, converted into the albumen of the blood and the 
albuminous portions of the tissues, and is discharged from 
the body in the excretions as urea, creatinine, etc. Glucose 
(resulting from the digestion of sugar and starch) and 
fatty matters, after serving in the main to build up the 
adipose and other soft tissues of the body, are eliminated 
chiefly as carbonic acid and water. On the other hand, 
water and the mineral ingredients of food, as a rule, pass 
through the system unchanged after having afforded 
necessary fluidity, strength, or alkalinity to various tissues 
and fluids, as the case may be. 

148. In healthy digestion the food which cannot be 
assimilated or converted into heat, energy, and strength, is 
ordinarily eliminated with ease by the excretory organs. 
But, if the bodily powers be overtaxed by food, inappro- 
priate as to quantity or qualit}^ the extra eliminating 
work demanded, especially of the kidneys and liver, may 
seriously derange the overtaxed organs. 

149. For digestion to be normally carried on, it is evi- 
dent, from what has already been said, that the digestive 
organs must be normal in structure and capable of the 
necessary muscular movements. Their secretions must 
be perfect as to quality and quantity. Gastric juice, for 
example, will not act as a solvent if its acid is neutralized 



THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO TISSUES. 101 

by an alkali. So of the pancreatic and intestinal juices, 
if their alkaline nature is destroyed by the undue presence 
of acids. 1 

The food also must be just sufficient, and so cooked or 
otherwise prepared that it can be acted upon with ease 
by the digestive organs and their secretions. It must be 
thoroughly chewed, with freedom from anxiety, slowly 
swallowed, and be taken at regular intervals, and not im- 
mediately before sleep or great physical or mental effort. 
Broken or decayed teeth, or a defective number of them, 
sore mouth or throat, neuralgia of the face, the waste of 
saliva by the habit of expectoration, torpidity of the 
muscles of the alimentary canal, defective action of the 
glands concerned in digestion, impediments in ducts, etc., 
all interfere with proper digestion and nutrition. 2 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What processes are generally termed "vital," and how are they 

essential to the maintenance of life? 

2. What is digestion, and what are the digestive organs ? 

3. Describe the alimentary canal, and name its different portions. 

4. What begins the alimentary canal, and what is there secreted? 

5. Describe the pharynx, and state what opens into it. 

6. What are the constrictors of the pharynx, and their object? 

7. Describe the oesophagus, and its object and mode of action. 

8. Describe the stomach and its openings. 

9. How are the intestines divided? Describe the small intestine. 

10. What is the mesentery, and its use ? 

11. How is the movement of the food in the intestine effected? 

12. Describe the mucous membrane of the intestine, and state its 

object, and how it is increased in extent. 



1 The lesson of moderation in the use of alkalies and acids is self-evident. 

2 Hence, it will be readily appreciated that difficult digestion, or "dys- 
pepsia," demands for its relief something more than specific medicines. 



102 DIGESTION. 

13. What gives it its plush-like appearance? Describe the villi, and 

state what they contain. 

14. Describe the lacteals. 

15. Of what use are the follicles in the mucous membrane of the 

intestine ? 

16. What secretions enter the intestine near the pylorus, and from 

what? 

17. Describe the large intestine, the coecum and its appendage. 

18. What are the accessory organs of digestion ? 

19. What are the uses of teeth ? Name and describe the different 

parts of a tooth. 

20. What kinds of teeth are there, and what are their different uses ? 

21. How do the jaws act in chewing? 

22. What do human teeth indicate as to the proper food of man? 

23. Why should care be taken of the temporary or first set of teeth V 

24. How should teeth be preserved ? 

25. Describe the salivary glands, and their secretion. 

26. Describe the pancreas and its secretion. 

27. Describe the liver and gall bladder. 

28. Describe the secretions of the liver. 

29. What are the various steps in the process of the conversion of food 

into tissue ? Describe them. 

30. What is the chyme? The chyle? 

31. How are the fatty matters in food converted into an emulsion? 

32. Where does absorption take place, and by what processes are sub- 

stances taken out of the alimentary canal ? 

33. How do the absorbed products of digestion reach the general 

circulation ? 

34. What changes are effected after they have reached the blood? 

35. What is assimilation ? 

36. What is necessary to healthy digestion? 



ANALYSIS. 



103 



ANALYSIS OF THE EIGHTH CHAPTER. 

DIGESTION.— THE CONVERSION OF FOOD INTO 
TISSUES. 



I. Organs 



Alimentary 
canal 



Accessory 
organs 



r Teeth . 



Salivary 
glands 

Liver 

Pancreas 



II. Steps or Processes . . 



Varieties 



Month. 
Pharynx. 
Oesophagus. 
Stomach. 
Small intestine. 
Large intestine. 

f Uses. 
Structure. 

f Incisors. 
J Canines. 
1 Bicuspids. 
[ Molars. 
Arrangement. 
Preservation. 
Parotid. 
Sub-maxillary. 
Sub-lingual. 

Of the mucous membrane of 
the mouth. 
Organs of absorption, — veins & lacteals. 
Organs of assimilation, — cells. 



Mastication. 
Insalivation. 
Deglutition. 
Stomach digestion. 
Intestinal digestion. 
Absorption ) n - , ,. 
.Assimilation j Circulation. 



CHAPTER IX. 
FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

150. The term food in a physiological sense includes 
all substances, solid or fluid, which, when introduced into 
the system, will nourish some part of it, or will supply 
heat, or nervous or other animal force, or aid in the due 
discharge of the various processes which take place in the 
body. Some kinds of food — preeminently milk — will 
accomplish all these results. 

151. Food, both that which directly sustains cell life 
by supplying material for cell growth and development, 
and also that which, like the fuel of an engine, is con- 
verted into heat and force, is sometimes called positive 
food. Substances which assist the vital processes by facili- 
tating the assimilation of other substances, or by retarding 
the waste of tissues, are known as negative foods. 

152. Food is furnished to us by all the kingdoms of 
nature ; and, as our knowledge extends, new food prod- 
ucts are discovered. It is worthy of note that the 
ordinary food supply of different countries varies in kind 
and quantity, 1 and that substances highly esteemed by 
some portions of our race are repulsive to us, while some 

1 " Lists of possible eatables are most interesting to the student of human 
nature; they lead to inferences as to the action of laws, religions, customs, and 
associations, in making that abominable to one race which is most highly 
appreciated by another; and they are an important part of the arguments of 
those who trace political events and national character to physical causes." — 
Manuel of Diet. Thomas King Chambers. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 105 

of our most valued foods are considered by others as even 
poisonous. 1 Unlike the lower animals, man can prepare 
by sifting, grinding, cooking, etc., such food as he cannot 
or does not care to eat in its natural state ; and is enabled 
to remove what may be hurtful, and to retain for himself 
what is beneficial. 

Much, however, that is indigestible and innutritious in 
food substance is more or less important, in moderate 
amount, to stimulate the digestive organs. Food too much 
refined, or deprived altogether of coarser ingredients, such 
as bran and the skins of small fruits, is not the' best 
adapted to persons in health, (a.) 

153. Food may be considered as organic and inorganic, 
— or, that which is obtained from living organisms, whether 
animals or plants, and that which is derived directly from 
unorganized bodies, as air, water, and earth. The chemical 
elements of which the human body is composed, and which 
must therefore be supplied to it by food, are said to be 
fourteen in number. 2 The principal of these are nitrogen, 
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. 

154. Organic food substances are divisible into two 
groups of alimentary principles or constituents ; viz., the 
nitrogenous or albuminoid, and the non-nitrogenous or car- 
bonaceous. The first group comprises such substances as 
albumen, fibrin, and casein. They are called nitrogenous 



1 Certain tribes of Indians in South America eat at times a peculiar kind of 
clay. Beetles were eaten by Roman epicures, and are said also to be eaten by 
Turkish women for the purpose of fattening themselves. Bees, moths, ants, 
mice, and many small animals form staple articles of diet in some parts of the 
world. Humboldt tells us that centipedes are eaten with avidity by some of 
the natives of South America. 

2 The elements are : Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sul- 
phur, silicon, chlorine, fluorine, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and 
iron. 



106 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

because they contain nitrogen. 1 From their resemblance 
to albumen, the most prominent member of the group, 
they are also called albuminoids. The second group com- 
prises fats, sugars, and starches, which are distinguished 
as non-nitrogenous or carbonaceous, because they do not 
contain nitrogen, and have carbon as a prominent ingre- 
dient. 2 There are a few organic alimentary principles 
which cannot be grouped as above ; such are the vegetable 
acids and pectin, or vegetable jelly. The inorganic food 
substances comprise water and various chemical salts, the 
principal of which are common salt, and the salts of soda, 
potassa, and lime. 

155. Albuminoid compounds exist not only in nearly 
every animal fluid and tissue, but also in vegetables, 
especially the cereal grains ; and accordingly these grains 
may sometimes be substituted for animal food. While the 
nitrogenous constituents of vegetable food are similar to 
those in animal food, their relative quantity is much 
smaller, and the indigestible residue of vegetable food 
is much larger in amount. 

156. From the presence of albuminous substances in 
the animal economy, the necessity of a due supply of 
albuminoids in food is self evident, yet they cannot of 
themselves alone support life. Animals fed exclusively on 
any one of them lose appetite, become emaciated, and die 
of starvation. Though they are of great importance, and 

1 Besides nitrogen, they contain oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, and in some 
instances, (as in albumen, fibrin, and casein), sulphur also. They are some- 
times called "proteids," "protein compounds," " proteinaceous alimentary 
principles," "organic substances proper," etc. 

2 The fats are sometimes spoken of as the hydro-carbons, and the starches 
and sugars as carbo-hydrates. The terms "calorific," "combustibles," 
"respiratory," "fat forming," and "heat producing," are sometimes applied 
to the " second group " of organic food constituents. They are composed of 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 107 

exhaustion follows more rapidly when they are withheld 
than when the body is deprived of certain other food con- 
stituents, yet to distinguish them as " the nutritious " 
elements of food is misleading. 1 

The more permanent tissues of the body are undoubt- 
edly more readily constructed from the albuminous than 
from the carbonaceous food substances, and by the con- 
version of the former into tissues, force is mainly produced. 
Still, recent researches by Fick, Wislicenus, and others 
show that the changes carbonaceous foods undergo in the 
body not only afford the most heat, but considerable force 
also. 

157. Albuminous substances can be eaten for a longer 
time without loathing than most other food constituents. 
The foods which contain them, especially meat, are also 
for the most part palatable, and give us the " sensations of 
energy, of feeling up to the mark, of being equal to w r ork, 
which are so pleasant to all." (a.) Hence they are apt to be 
consumed in too large quantities, and the stimulus afforded 
by such food is quite often obtained at the risk of bilious- 
ness and gout, for the waste products, resulting from the 
digestion of so much nitrogenous food, are not thoroughly 
eliminated from the body, and act as poisons in the 
blood. Especially is this the case if there is insuffi- 
cient exercise, if the digestive secretions are not sufficiently 
abundant or active, or the liver and kidneys are not in 
healthy working order. 

158. The nitrogenous constituents are not crystallizable ; 
they exist mainly in a fluid or semi-solid condition ; they 

1 The idea that albuminoids were aloue the "tissue making," " flesh form- 
ing" or "plastic," and therefore the "nutritious" elements, has been taught 
by physiologists until recently. It was advocated by Baron von Liebig, who 
was among the first to attempt a scientific classification of food. 



108 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

coagulate, i.e. become solid, under certain conditions, for 
example, on exposure to air, heat, or acids ; under favor- 
able circumstances they act as ferments, and are them- 
selves liable to putrefy and to transformations under the 
influence of ferments. 1 The process of putrefaction, by 
which the substances soften, liquefy, and decompose, 
requires for its inception and continuation, access of 
atmospheric air, or of some fluid containing oxygen, the 
presence of moisture, and a moderately elevated tempera- 
ture. The process is accomplished by the growth and 
multiplication of a microscopic vegetable organism belong- 
ing to the genus bacterium. Canning of food, especially 
if it has been partially cooked, desiccation, or thorough 
drying, freezing, and also heating to about the tem- 
perature of boiling water, are methods by which the 
decomposition of albuminoid matter and the activity of 
bacteria can be prevented, and the preservation of food 
effected. («.) 

159. The principal albuminoid constituents of animal 
food are albumen, fibrin, and casein ; of vegetable food, 
albumen, gluten, and casein. 2 

Albumen is found in flesh, blood, milk, seeds, and grains, 
but its purest form is the white of eggs. 

Fibrin 3 is found in the blood, lymph, and chyle, and in 
some of the semi-solid animal tissues, and in some of the 
vegetable juices. From bones there is extracted an 

1 Casein of milk, for instance, after exposure for a time to a warm atmos- 
phere, becomes a ferment, and sours the milk by converting the sugar of the 
milk into lactic acid. 

2 Other albuminoid constituents are: myosine, in muscle; chondrine, in 
cartilage; and elastine, in elastic tissue. There are also the ferments, ptyaline, 
pepsine, etc., and coloring matters such as the hemoglobine of the blood, 
bilirubine and biliverdine of the bile. 

3 Within the last few years physiologists have- been led to believe that 
the term "fibrin" should be alone applied to the coagulated ingredient 
"fibrinogen." 






FOOD. — DIETETICS. 109 

albuminous principle known as gelatine, which is often 
given to invalids in the form of jelly. 1 

Gluten exists in variable quantity in the cereal grains, 
being most abundant in Avheat (10 to 35 per cent). It is 
this that gives to dough its adhesive character. It is a 
highly nutritious compound, and is composed of vegetable 
albumen, fibrin, and casein, together with oil and inorganic 
matter. 2 

Casein exists in milk, and in a coagulated form becomes 
cheese. It is also extracted from beans, peas, and similar 
vegetables, and is then known as vegetable casein or 
" legumine." 3 

160. The organic non-nitrogenous food constituents — 
fat, sugar, and starch 4 — are of more importance than is 
generally believed. The Tyrolese chamois hunters, it is 
said, find that they can endure greater fatigue with beef 
fat as their food than with the same weight of lean meat. 
The strength of the Hindoo and of the Irishman, the one 
living mainly on rice and the other on potatoes, is well 
known. Still, the amount necessary of such foods to 
furnish that strength is very large in comparison with that 

1 In 1811 the physiologist Magendie, in connection with a French committee 
of investigation, showed that animals fed on pure albumen, fibrin, or gelatine, 
lost their appetites and died, with all the evidences of starvation, about the 
twentieth day. On the other hand, raw bones, containing, as they do, fat, 
albumen, water, and salts, as well as gelatine, are capable of supporting life. 

2 By the gelatine committee referred to above, it was proved that dogs 
could live and be nourished on gluten alone for an indefinite time. Pereira 
says of it, "Gluten is easy of digestion, and substances which contain it largely 
are readily digested by invalids and dyspeptics." 

3 " The article called tao-foo, made by the Chinese from peas, is apparently 
identical with cheese." — Text-Book of Physiology. Flint. 

4 These constituents were called by Liebig the respiratory , from his belief 
that in the body their carbonaceous elements were the sole sources of heat, 
and only useful to produce it by being slowly burned up in respiration by con- 
tact with the respired oxygen of the air, just as heat in ordinary combustion 
is produced by the combination of the carbonaceous materials of wood, coal . 
fats, oils, etc., with the oxygen of the atmosphere. 



110 . FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

required by a mixed animal and vegetable diet. Necessary 
as the organic non-nitrogenous constituents are, like the 
albuminoids and other alimentary principles, none of them 
of themselves will support life. 

161. Fat is chiefly obtained from animals in the form 
of adipose tissue, the cream of milk, or as fish oil. Many 
vegetable substances also contain fat, especially oats and 
Indian corn, cocoa, beans, walnuts, butternuts, and the 
berries of the olive tree. The digestibility of fat varies 
with individuals, and with the kind eaten ; some persons 
dispose easily of that of bacon or beef, while others readily 
digest fresh butter only. Animal fat is, as a rule, not so 
easily digested as vegetable oils. Some kinds of fat, not 
being pure, easily decompose on exposure to air; or, on 
being heated, acids are produced which sometimes prove 
very indigestible and irritating if received into the system. 

The heat-producing property of fat renders it especially 
valuable in cold weather and in cold climates, where it is 
eaten by the inhabitants in enormous quantities, four to 
five pounds per day being the ordinary amount for the 
average adult, (a.) Sailors, who may be averse to fatty 
food, when wintering in the Arctic regions, as a rule, learn 
to drink freely of oil, and to enjoy the fat portions of the 
seal, walrus, and other marine animals. On the other 
hand, fat is much used in hot countries in the shape of 
vegetable and fish oils, especially when meat is scarce or 
is prohibited by religious opinions. (5.) 

162. Fat is especially necessary when growth is most 
rapid ; for its presence in the body seems to be essential to 
cell growth. It is claimed by many eminent physicians 
that fat eaten in sufficient quantity is a preventive of 
much of that defective nutrition which finally ends in 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. Ill 

chronic nervous diseases, and in scrofula and consumption. 1 
On the contrary, too large a quantity of carbonaceous 
food, sugar and starch as well as fat, is not readily dis- 
posed of in the body, but produces skin eruptions, unduly 
increases the adipose tissue, especially about the heart and 
other organs, and thus impairs health. 

163. Starch, when pure, is a fine white powder, which 
under the microscope is seen to consist of granules. 
These vary in size and form, according to the kind of 
starch. 2 Starch is found distributed through the vegetable 
kingdom in cells and among fibres, in tubers, seeds, stems, 
and fruit. It is especially abundant in the cereals, also 
in potatoes, chestnuts, beans, peas, and lentils. 3 Arrow 
root, tapioca, and sago, which are extractions from various 
plants, are nearly pure specimens of starch. 

164. Starch is not affected by cold water. But if 
heated with water, the granules absorb it, swell, and form 
a mucilaginous mass or stiff jelly. When boiled with 
several times their volume of water, the granules burst, 

1 " This is probably one of the reasons of the craving of children in our 
climate for butter, which presents oily matter to the digestion in an easily 
assimilable form, and is evidently a valuable dietetic agent." 

It is probably true that most of the persons who are benefited in this coun- 
try by cod-liver oil, in Switzerland by neat's-foot oil, and in Russia by train- 
oil, would not need these oils as medicine if their food had contained sufficient 
oil or fat. 

2 " They cannot be distinctly seen with the naked eye, and are so extremely 
minute that the finest wheat flour, which has been ground to an impalpable 
dust, contains its starch granules mostly unbroken and perfect. The granules 
of potato starch are the largest, while those of wheat and rice are much smaller, 
varying all the way from the y o o^b to Toio oth of an inch in diameter. Assum- 
ing the grains of wheat starch to be T oVoth of an inch in diameter, a thousand 
million of them would be contained in a cubic inch of space." — Hand Book 
of Household Science. Youmans. 

3 "It forms at least one-seventh of the whole substance of the potato, about 
one-third of peas and beans, over one-half of wheat, rye, and oats, and at least 
three-quarters of rice and Indian com." — Dalton's Treatise on Human 
Physic 



112 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

become transparent, and lose their individuality. On cool- 
ing, a homogeneous pasty mass is formed, in which the 
granules are not visible. 

By the absorption of water and subsequent cooking, the 
starch is partly changed into dextrine, in which form the 
necessary process in digestion, of conversion into glucose 
by means of the saliva and intestinal juice, is more readily 
effected. Hence, starchy foods are most digestible when 
thoroughly cooked. During the process of germination of 
fruits and vegetables, a part of their starchy contents is 
also changed into dextrine by the action of a peculiar 
vegetable substance known as diastase. It is for this reason 
mainly that ripe fruit is more digestible than unripe. 

165. Though starch is, in general, promptly trans- 
formed by the digestive process, yet, if taken in a very 
large quantity, or too frequently, to the exclusion of other 
food material, fermentation results, and the appetite is 
weakened and digestion impaired. Persons, therefore, 
living chiefly on bread and tea, or on bread and potatoes, 
or, as sometimes happens in the case of young children, 
upon arrow root and corn starch, often suffer from an 
u acid stomach." For these reasons starchy foods should 
be given sparingly, if at all, to children under four months 
of age ; that is, until a sufficiency of saliva and intestinal 
juice is secreted. 

166. Entering into the composition of certain vegetables 
are substances allied to starch, but differing somewhat as 
to properties, and having comparatively but little value 
as food. Of these, gum, mucilages, and pectin, or vege- 
table jelly, are examples. 1 

1 These substances are sometimes classified as the amylaceous compounds, 
i.e. resembling starch, — to distinguish them from the oleaginous group of sub- 
stances ; viz., fats and oils, and the saccharine group, — or the sugars. Cel- 
lulose, lichenine and inuline, besides many other substances, belong to the 
amylaceous compounds. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 113 

167. Sugar is closely related to starch in chemical 
composition, but is distinguished by its sweet taste, its 
solubility in water, and the crystallization which occurs 
upon boiling a watery solution. Some varieties of sugar 
readily ferment, that is to say, decompose and are con- 
verted into alcohol and carbonic acid, on exposure to heat 
and moisture, or in the presence of an organized substance 
known as yeast. 

There are several varieties of sugar. The most import- 
ant of these are cane sugar, glucose or grape sugar, and 
milk sugar. 1 Of these varieties cane sugar is the sweetest 
and most soluble. 

Sugar is a valuable food, and serves to render other 
foods more palatable ; but, if taken in excess, or to the 
exclusion of other foods, it may make the consumer 
unduly fat, interfere with the appetite for foods which are 
not sweet, and not being wholly absorbed, undergo fermen- 
tation, giving rise to acid conditions of the stomach, etc. 2 

168. The inorganic constituents of food are water and 
the chemical salts. Some of the salts are needed in a 
comparatively large amount for certain parts of the body, 
as lime for the bones ; phosphorus for the bones, muscles, 
and nervous system ; iron for the blood ; and alkalies for 
the liver. 

169. Of all substances, a regular supply of water is the 
most essential to the maintenance of life. If deprived of 
it for eight or ten hours, far greater inconvenience, pain, 

1 Cane sugar is obtained from sugar cane, beet root, sugar maple, etc. 
Glucose is combined with cane sugar and fruit sugar, in peaches, pineapples, 
and strawberries ; and with fruit sugar in honey, grapes, cherries, etc., and in 
raisins and other dried fruit, and is frequently found in the animal fluids. 
Milk sugar is the saccharine ingredient of milk. 

2 Good candy, not impaired by deleterious coloring matter, or other substan- 
ces, and eaten in moderation, is a serviceable food, especially when the diet is 
deficient in carbonaceous elements. 



114 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

and debility is suffered than upon a similar deprivation of 
solid food. With water, life may be sustained without the 
aid of other food for several weeks ; but, if entirely deprived 
of it, death is likely to result in a few days, (a.) 

170. Water is present in all the tissues, solid and semi- 
solid, and in all the fluids, and, it is estimated, constitutes 
about 70 per cent of the entire weight of the body. 1 It 
gives fluidity to the blood and secretions, enabling them 
to perform their functions of introducing into the body, 
and discharging from it, substances held by them in 
solution. The elasticity of bones, cartilages, and muscles, 
and the flexibility of tendons and other tissues, are largely 
due to its presence. 

The quantity introduced into the body of a healthy 
man as a drink, and in various foods, in temperate climates, 
is on an average about four and a half pounds per day. 2 
It is found in every kind of food, whether solid or fluid, 
and the amount so taken is not usually appreciated. 3 

1 Quantity of water, according to Dalton, in 1000 parts of 

Saliva 995 

Perspiration . . . 986 
Gastric juice . . . 975 
Pancreatic juice . 900 

2 According to Dr. Dalton, ' ' there is reason to believe that a certain quantity 
of water also makes its appearance within the body by the liberation of its 
elements from various organic combinations." 

3 ' ' Number of pounds of water in 100 pounds of 

Sugar 5 lbs. 

Rice 13 " 

Indian meal 14 " 

Peas, wheat flour, barley \ 

meal, oatmeal, butter \ 15 " 
fats, dried bacon . J 

Bread 37 " 

Fat pork 39 " 

" In 100 pints of New milk 86 lbs. 

Skimmed milk and butter milk . . 88 lbs. 

Beer and porter 91 lbs." 

— Health. Edward Smith, M.D. London 



Bile .... 


. . 880 


Muscles . . 


. . 750 


Blood . . . 


. . 795 


Cartilage . . 


. . 550 


Brain . . . . 


. . 789 


Bones . . . 


. . 130 


Ligaments . . 


. . 768 


Teeth . . . 


. . 100 



Fat beef 51 lbs. 

Fat mutton - . 53 " 

Lean mutton 72 " 

Egg, ox liver 74 " 

Potatoes, eels 75 " 

Parsnips 82 " 

Turnips 91 " 



FOOD. 



DIETETICS. 



115 



After performing its part in the various nutritive pro- 
cesses carried on in the body, about 20 per cent is exhaled 
from the lungs, 30 per cent discharged by the skin, and 
50 per cent by the kidneys and intestines. 

171. Next to water the most important inorganic con- 
stituents of the body and food are sodium chloride, or 
common salt, calcium phosphate, iron, phosphorus, and sul- 
phur. Salt is essential to the life of animals, and is found 
in their every tissue, with the exception of the enamel of 
the teeth. It is also a constituent of almost all food, and 
exists in small quantities in almost every spring, soil, and 
plant. The quantity taken with food as furnished by 
nature is generally insufficient for the needs of the body, 
and hence its use as a condiment. It assists in regulat- 
ing the processes of endosmosis and exosmosis, and excites 
the digestive secretions, thus stimulating the appetite. Its 
value is indicated by the natural craving of the system for 
it, and by the results of experiments upon the lower 
animals. Without it, digestion would be imperfect and 
health could not be long maintained. We are told that 
the ancient laws of Holland " ordained men to be kept on 
bread alone, unmixed with salt, as the severest punishment 
that could be inflicted upon them in their moist climate." 
Animals will go long distances in search of salt, and if 
deprived of it, their hides become rough and tangled, their 
spirits dull, and they finally lose health and strength. In 
countries where salt is scarce, it is sold at fabulous 
prices. («.) 

172. Lime occurs principally as calcium phosphate, and 
calcium carbonate, the first being most abundant. Lime is 
an ingredient of every tissue and fluid of the body, but is 
especially necessary in the bones and teeth, where it affords 
strength and consistency. 



116 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

We heave already seen that a deficiency of lime salts 
renders the bones soft, so that they easily bend ; hence, dur- 
ing early life, when the tissues are developing, lime salts 
should be supplied in comparatively large quantities. Of 
all articles of food, meat, milk, and vegetable grains con- 
tain lime in the largest amount. 

Of iron about one-third of an ounce exists in the body 
in connection with the coloring matter of the blood, of 
which fluid it forms about one-thousandth part. It is a 
constituent of milk and eggs, and is sometimes found in 
water. Its importance to health becomes appreciated, 
when, as a medicine, it restores color to the skin and 
enriches the blood. 

Phosphorus and sulphur, in the form of phosphates and 
sulphates, are introduced into the body with food, and 
enter into the composition of muscles and other tissues. 1 

173. The vegetable acids, malic, citric, tartaric, etc., are 
found in fruits and vegetables, combined with the bases, 
lime, soda, and potassa, forming salts known as malates, 
citrates, etc. These salts are indispensable in food, for in 
the body they are converted into carbonates, and assist in 
furnishing alkalies to the blood and other fluids. 

1 74. The quantity of food needed varies greatly, depend- 
ing upon age, health, occupation, digestive powers, and 
other peculiarities, also upon the climate and season, the 
amount of clothing worn, upon the kind of food used, 

1 " The element phosphorus seems no less important from a biological 
point of view than carbon or nitrogen. It is as absolutely essential for the 
growth of a lowly being like penicillium as for man himself. We find it peculi- 
arly associated with the proteids, apparently in the form of phosphates ; but 
we cannot explain its role. The element sulphur, again, is only second to 
phosphorus, and we find it as a constituent of nearly all proteids; but we 
cannot tell what exactly would happen to the economy if all the sulphur of the 
food were withdrawn." — Text Book of Physiology. Foster. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 117 

and other circumstances. In infancy, a period of rapid 
growth and development, a proportionately larger amount 
of food is needed than at any other period of life. 1 

A healthy, growing child, with the muscular strength 
and nervous energy of youth, will often eat, if it does not 
require, as much food as the average man; 2 while old, 
feeble, and inactive persons require but very little food. 

Lewis Conaro, a Venetian, leading a quiet life, subsisted 
for 48 years on 12 ounces per day of vegetable matter, 
and 14 ounces of light wine. 

During the late siege of Paris, when the inhabitants 
were inactive, a diet which barely supported life consisted 
of 10 ounces of bread and 1 ounce of meat daily. 

1 75. Active mental or physical work renders an abun- 
dance of substantial food necessary. 

Proper work cannot be accomplished on an insufficient 
or improper diet. It happens sometimes that in prisons, 
and even charitable institutions, the daily ration is dimin- 
ished below the physiological standard for the sake of 
economy. If there is but little activity of mind or body, 
some diminution may not be attended with actual disease, 
but if active, healthy children are scantily fed, or convicts 
in prison are compelled to do hard work on a light labor 
diet, sickness, great feebleness, and even death result. 

1 During the first year of life a child should grow from six to eight inches, 
and should weigh at the end of the year two or three times as much as at birth. 

"in the second year the growth should he only about half as much as in the 
first. In the third year only about a third as much. After the third year the 
weight and growth are more uniform. To meet these demands it is generally 
necessary to feed infants every two, three, or four hours. 

2 " In case of in-door operatives, the dietaries of women should be about 
one-tenth less than those of men. A child at ten years of age will require half 
as much nutriment as a woman, and at fourteen quite as much as a woman. 
Young men who have not reached their full growth, but who are doing the 
same amount of work as adult men, require more food than the latter." — 
Handbook of Hygiene and Sanitary Science. Wilson. 



118 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

Size alone does not determine the amount of food 
required. In fact, large and fat people often thrive on a 
scant diet, especially if there be a great indisposition to 
muscular exertion, while thin and diminutive persons, 
particularly hard workers, may eat and digest a very large 
amount. As people become better supplied with this 
world's goods, the tendency is to eat too much. A loss of 
wealth sometimes restores health, by a diminution in the 
quantity and a change in the quality of the food con- 
sumed. Persons in moderate circumstances often learn 
how to thrive on what is considered by many an insuffi- 
cient amount of food. The body exposed to a cool, brac- 
ing atmosphere, or to extreme cold, demands an increased 
supply of food. 1 According to Dr. Hayes, the Arctic ex- 
plorer, the daily ration of the Esquimaux is from twelve to 
fifteen pounds of meat, about one-third of which is fat. 

176. The digestibility of food must to a large extent 
regulate the quantity to be eaten, especially of certain 
kinds, such as beans, peas, cheese, and rice. A healthy 
appetite, if the individual is able to supply himself with 
the food he desires, is ordinarily nature's regulator as to 
quantity, and also quality. Appetite normally asserts 
itself at regular intervals, or what we call meal-times, 
and may then be appeased by a moderate quantity of 
food. But an undue excitation of the muscles and mu- 
cous membrane of the stomach, by irregular eating, will 
produce in time the habit of an irregular secretion of the 
gastric juice, a consequent variable appetite, or a frequent 
and gluttonous desire for unnecessary food. The exces- 
sive amount of food thus eaten disorders the processes of 

1 The ravenous appetite noticed amongst the inhabitants of cold climates 
may be due, in part, to the -fact that their food supply is very irregular, so 
that when supplied with food they eat to excess. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 119 

secretion, assimilation, and excretion, and induces disease. 1 
As Dr. Beale remarks, " The generally received theory 
propounded by some popular philosophers, that the more 
you consume in the way of food the more work will your 
machinery perform, is a principle which may apply to 
machines, but not to man." 

177. The appetite may be aroused by attention to hy- 
gienic measures, such as proper mental and physical exer- 
cise, bathing, rest, and the proper selection, cooking, and 
presentation of food ; also, b}^ vegetable bitters, by condi- 
ments, etc. It is diminished, on the other hand, by inat- 
tention to hygiene, by worry, by opium and other drugs, 
and by an abuse of alcoholic stimulants. 

178. The knowledge of the kind and daily amount of 
food required by the average individual, among an aggre- 
gation of persons whose social and hygienic surroundings 
are about the same, — as in an army, on shipboard, or in 
an institution, — affords a criterion upon which to calculate 
the kind and amount needed by a number of persons. 
From such estimates Dietaries or Diet Tables are con- 
structed. 

The requisite daily amount of food for the maintenance 
of the health of "a person of average stature under 
exposure to a temperate climate and a moderate amount 

1 "A voracious appetite is a condition which I suppose may he due to a 
very irritable state of the nerves of the stomach. . . . The voracious appetite, 
as we see it existing in children and young people, usually comes from undue 
encouragement. The greater the desire for food the more food the individual 
eats, and so he goes on, until he succeeds in consuming several times as much 
food as his system requires. Thus is thrown upon important organs the task 
of eliminating a quantity of useless material which ought not to have been 
taken. ... A child perhaps is rather thin, and therefore encouraged to stuff, 
and by degrees the habit of taking enormous quantities of food is acquired, 
with the not uncommon result to the patient of getting thinner, instead of 
gaining in weight." — Slight Ailments. Lionel S. Beale, M.D., F.R.S. 



120 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

of muscular work " is 23 ounces of dry, solid matter, 1 
or 46 ounces of solid food as ordinarily consumed ; 50 
to 80 ounces of water, in addition to that in the solid 
food, is also necessary. The solid food thus consumed 
contains about 300 grains of nitrogen, and 4,800 grains of 
carbon, (a.) A diet, in which the quantity of food and 
the relative proportions of nitrogen and carbon are much 
below the above estimates, induces the symptoms of star- 
vation with greater or less rapidity. 2 (b.) 

179. In the selection mid preparation of food there are 
certain points to be observed : the diet should consist of 
animal, vegetable, and mineral food, in such proportion 
and condition as will afford nutrition, avoid monotony, 
and tempt the appetite. 

Unquestionably a diversified diet best fulfils the above 
conditions. Wheat bread, valuable as it is, contains about 
25 per cent of carbon, and only 1 per cent of nitrogen. 
In order therefore to obtain the required amount of nitro- 
gen, if bread alone is eaten, it will be necessary to eat 

1 " Alimentary substances in a dry state required daily: — 

Dry food in ounces avoirdupois. 

Albuminous matter 4.587 

Fatty matter 2.964 

Carbo-hydrates 14.250 

Salts 1.058 

22.859." 
— Quain's Diet, of Med. 

2 ' ' The first and most important principle established by Chossat is that 
absolute deprivation of food, and deficiency of food, are physiologically iden- 
tical in their action on animal life. One acts quicker than the other, but the 
difference is merely one of duration and degree. Both are equally fatal in the 
end ; and the end in both is regulated by the same law. Death arrives when 
the body has lost six-tenths of its weight, whether that happens after days, or 
months, or years." — Manual of Diet. Chambers. 

In an overcrowded military prison, a diet of one-third of a pound of bacon 
and one and three-fourths pounds of unbolted meal daily, caused much sick- 
ness and very many deaths. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 121 

about four pounds a day ; in doing which, twice the neces- 
sary amount of carbon will be consumed. On the other 
hand, to obtain sufficient carbon from an exclusive meat 
diet, a man must eat about six pounds of meat a day, 
and he would be taking six times as much nitrogen as is 
necessary. 

ISO. The system craves a varied diet, and the living 
for a length of time on even an abundance of food, if it 
be unvaried from day to day, will generally result in loss 
of appetite and in disease. The condition known as 
scurvy, — in which the blood becomes thin, and settles in 
spots under the skin, and the gums are spongy and bleed 
readily, and the individual is debilitated, — was formerly 
not uncommon on long sea-voyages, especially in the Arc- 
tic regions, where the diet consisted largely of bread, tea, 
and salt meat. At the present time most vessels going on 
such voyages are supplied with lemons, lime juice, canned 
meats, fruits, and vegetables. 1 (a.) A similar condition is 
also seen on land in persons who are restricted to a diet in 
which fresh vegetables and fruit are lacking, or whose food 
consists mainly of potatoes or bread and tea, with little or 
no butter, meat, or milk. 

181. Soldiers in active service, with restricted and un- 
varying rations, often have an intense craving for fresh 
vegetables, such as onions and raw potatoes, which are 
excellent anti-scorbutics. 

When a variety of articles cannot be obtained, varied 
methods of preparing and cooking the limited supply 
should be resorted to. " Good cookery means economy ; 
bad cookery means waste." 

1 Lime juice, by law, is required to be carried on board English ships, and 
served out to the sailors; hence, English ships are called by American sailors 
" lime juicers." 



122 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

182. On the other hand, however, there may be such a 
thing as too great a variety, and this also will destroy the 
appetite. People living in large hotels, travellers fre- 
quently eating in bountifully supplied cars and restau- 
rants, especially if little exercise is taken, often suffer 
from dyspepsia and disturbed action of the liver and other 
digestive organs. High livers are apt to resort to alcoholic 
stimulants and to condiments to excite their jaded appe- 
tites. In like manner, the underfed and those living on a 
very small variety of food often fancy they need the 
assistance of the cup. In the former case the practice of 
abstemiousness, and in the latter a more bountiful and 
varied diet, is really what is required. 1 

183. Articles of food are often robbed of their value, 
and are sometimes positively harmful, and even poisonous, 
in consequence of adulteration? or of being immature, or 
stale, or too ripe. Milk diluted with water, or skimmed 
of a large part of its cream, or that taken from unhealthy 
cows, is a common evil. "Measly meat," that is, meat 
containing animalculae, such as trichinae, is occasionally 
the cause of sickness and death. 

184. Vegetables, and meat of coarse texture, which 
are purchased for economical reasons, are often tough and 
indigestible. Garden produce, especially corn, cucumbers, 
celery, and lettuce, when fresh and fully formed, are 

1 "Coffee houses," "holly tree inns," "diet dispensaries," if properly- 
conducted, can do much to avert a taste for liquor by furnishing suitable 
food. 

2 Adulteration is very common, and laws to control it are evaded. Frauds 
in food consist, first, in the addition of deleterious substances, such as salt of 
copper to pickles, and red lead to cayenne pepper. Second, in the sale of 
fraudulent materials, such as cotton-seed oil for salad oil, of flour and a little 
mustard with turmeric for pure mustard, and of oleomargarine for butter. 
Third, the sale of substances not so fresh and in as good a condition as they 
are represented to be by the seller. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 123 

desirable additions to the table, but may become indigest- 
ible, and a source of disease if allowed to become dry and 
stale, («.) On the other hand, immature fruits and vege- 
tables, such as potatoes, lack the fully formed juices and 
salts, which are so indispensable to make them serviceable 
as food. In over-ripe fruit and vegetables the juices and 
salts have decomposed, giving rise to new combinations 
which are hurtful. 

185. Housekeepers are often hindered, in supplying the 
table with much of what the various seasons afford, by the 
cost of the articles of food. Yet a careful examination of 
this question will show that the cost varies greatly in dif- 
ferent parts of the same city, and that investigation will 
soon enable one to furnish a variety of good substantial 
food at much less cost than is generally thought possible. 
The instructions afforded by some of the cooking schools 
should be directed even more than it is to this object, (a.) 

186. Food of medium quality may be made very ser- 
viceable by proper preparation and cooking. On the other 
hand, the very best food may be rendered useless, and also 
unwholesome, and even dangerous, by improper prepar- 
atory treatment, (a.) For example, the coarser and 
tougher portions of meat, and also vegetables of coarse 
fibre, will be rendered quite tender by prolonged boiling. 
An important rule in roasting, boiling, or broiling meat, is 
to produce at the start a rapid coagulation of the albumen 
on the outer surface of the meat, so as to form a crust that 
may prevent the juices from escaping. This is done by 
subjecting the meat at the first to a great heat, after which 
the cooking should proceed more slowly. 1 In like manner, 

1 On the other hand, the process of soup-making is facilitated, if the meat is 
cut into small pieces and put into cold water, and the temperature slowly 
raised. 



124 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

the boiling of potatoes, with at least the larger part of their 
skins on, prevents the escape of much that is nutritious. 

187. Frying, as ordinarily conducted, is of all methods 
of cooking the most objectionable. The slowly heated 
fat evolves fatty acids which are more or less injurious, 
and, by penetrating into the particles of the frying food, 
envelops them in grease. As. fats are not digestible in 
the stomach, it follows that food so fried cannot be prop- 
erly dissolved by the gastric juice, but becomes an irritant. 
To fry properly, the fat should be boiling hot before the 
food is put into it, that an outer crust may be formed, 
which will prevent the fats from penetrating to the interior. 
And the fat should boil during the entire process of 
frying. 1 

Food preserved in cans made of so-called tin, but 
Avhich is in fact a compound of tin and lead, or in cans 
badly soldered with lead, is liable to become poisonous, 
especially if such food contain an acid, as is the case with 
tomatoes. 2 

Food cooked or left standing in brass or copper vessels 
which are not clean is dangerous to life. Ice boxes, store- 
rooms, or cellars, which are not clean or are imperfectly 
connected with drains, are constant sources of poison to 
milk, water, fats, and other foods which readily absorb 
poisons from the atmosphere. 

1 " Scientific frying is really one of the very best modes of cooking, while, 
on the other hand, the blundering starve-farthing way is the very worst." — 
Caterer. 

2 Much of the detriment arising from eating canned fruits, vegetables, and 
meat, would be obviated if these goods were preserved in glass jars. Canned 
fish, especially, should be warmed through before being eaten, by placing the 
opened can in a basin of hot water. Failure to do this may cause sickness. 



FOOD. — DIETETICS. 



125 







Fig. 46. 

"No wonder the meat won't keep, the beer turns sour, and the milk disagrees. 
Open grates in cellars are often untrapped, and, when trapped, the traps are 
usually ineffective from want of water, or from being broken ; and even if 
sealed by water, they are still an inefficient barrier to sewer gases, which can 
pass by absorption through water." — Dangers to Health. Teale. 



7. 
8. 

9. 
10. 

11. 

12. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is food in a physiological sense ? 

What are positive and what negative foods ? 

What are the sources of food, and of what use are the coarser 
ingredients ? 

How is food classified as to its origin, and how many chemical 
elements must be supplied by it ? 

How are the organic constituents divided? 

What are the distinguishing features of the nitrogenous constitu- 
ents? 

From what sources are they derived in the greatest abundance ? 

What are the principal forms in which they exist in animal and 
vegetable foods respectively ? 

What peculiar property has fibrin ? 

What are the non-nitrogenous constituents, and what is their 
value ? 

From whence is fat chiefly obtained? 

What is to be said of its dio;estibilitv, value, and varied use ? 



1 26 FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

13. Where is starch found, and in what different forms? 

14. When is starch most digestible, and why ? 

1 5. When is fruit most digestible, and why ? 

16. Why should an over-abundance of starchy foods be avoided? 

17. What substances are allied to starch, and what is their nutritive 

value ? 

18. What are the distinguishing properties of sugar? 

19. What principal varieties of sugar are there ? What is their value ? 

20. Name the principal inorganic constituents of food. 

21. To what extent is water found in the body? 

22. How is it received into the body, and what proportion is excreted 

by the lungs and skin ? 

23. Of what use is salt in food? 

24. What purpose does lime serve in the body, and how is it obtained : 

25. State the quantity of iron in the body. How mainly received, 

and its utility. 

26. What other substances are found in the blood and tissues ? 

27. What is to be said of the vegetable acids? 

28. What does the necessary quantity of food depend upon ? 

29. How is this modified by age? By size? By climate and tem- 

perature, by the nature of the food and the appetite ? 

30. What are the effects of too low a diet, and of too much food ? 

31. What should guide us in forming a dietary? 

32. What becomes especially important where there is no variety of diet ? 

33. What, however, may be the consequence of a too varied diet ? 

34. What is to be said of the resort to stimulants alike by the over 

and the under fed? 

35. What as to the condition of foods as obtained in our markets V 

36. What is the proper mode of frying, and why ? and why cannot 

improperly fried food be digested ? 

37. What is to be said of the vessels in which food is kept? 



ANALYSIS. 



127 



ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER NINE. 



FOOD. 



I. Constituents or Component Principles. 



- How essential ? 



Nitrogenous 



- Varieties 



Organic . . . . -. 



' Of animal — 
Albumen. 
Fibrin . 
Casein, etc. 
Of vegetable — 
Albumen. 
Gluten. 
Casein, etc. 
r How essential ? 
I Xon-nitrogenous . . J r Fats and oils. 

I Varieties . . . -j Starches. 

I Sugars, etc. 
f Water. 
Ino ic J Salts. — Chlorides, phosphates, etc. ; lime, etc. 
° ' 'I Sulphur. 

[ Iron. 



II. Quantity. 



DIETETICS. 



1. Selection of food 



2. Preparation of food 



f Constituents. 
Variety. 
Freshness. 
Maturity, cost, etc. 

Cooking, etc. 



CHAPTER X. 
FOODS. -ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

188. The various articles of food may be classified as 
animal, vegetable, and mineral. Animal foods comprise 
the flesh of animals, their blood, secretions (milk, eggs, 
etc.), and also their various organs, which, though not 
containing so much nitrogen as flesh, are often more ser- 
viceable if eaten with proper vegetable food. 1 

Flesh or meat consists of muscular, connective, and ad- 
ipose tissues, and contains albuminoids, water, fat, and 
salts. On account of its abundant supply of nitrogenous 
ingredients, its stimulating properties and pleasant taste, 
meat is usually ranked as a very nutritious 2 food; and 
is therefore frequently eaten to excess, especially by little 

1 The organs most commonly used as food are the heart, liver, pancreas, or 
"stomach bread," thymus gland or "sweet bread," and the stomach or 
"tripe." Pigs' feet and ox tails are highly esteemed by many. The heart — 
though composed almost entirely of muscle — is not always easily digested, 
while tripe is in general readily digested. The latter contains but about 13 
per cent of albuminoids and 16 per cent of fat. In fact, most of the internal 
organs do not contain a large amount of nitrogen, and should be eaten, there- 
fore, with grain food or vegetables comparatively rich in nitrogen. Bones, 
which are thrown away by many housekeepers because they are of "no use," 
if well broken up, and submitted to prolonged boiling, will yield fat and gela- 
tine which may form the basis or "stock" for nutritious soups, (a.) When 
meat is roasted, the drippings contain much nutriment, and, if boiled, or sub- 
mitted to prolonged simmering, as in the making of soup, much of the juice of 
the meat goes into the broth, leaving the meat quite hard. These drippings 
and this broth should be eaten with vegetables, rice, barley, etc. 

2 The terms " nutritious" and " wholesome " are too commonly applied by 
individuals to articles of food which suit their own tastes and digestion. 

' ' To assert a thing to be wholesome without a knowledge of the condition 
of the person for whom it is intended, is like a sailor pronouncing the wind to 
be fair without knowing to what port the vessel is bound." — Van Swieten. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 129 

children, old people, the feeble, and the inactive, (a.) It 
requires to be properly prepared and thoroughly chewed 
before it can be safely swallowed or readily digested. (5.) 

189. The various kinds of meat differ as to their digest- 
ibility and nutritive value. Beef, mutton, lamb, poultry, 
the flesh of many fishes, also venison and other "game," 
are generally more easily digested than pork, veal, and 
salted or pickled meats. 1 Different parts of the same animal 
vary as to flavor and tenderness ; but the cheaper portions, 
though ordinarily tough and indigestible, may, by proper 
cooking and seasoning, be rendered nutritious and palatable. 

The age of animals, the kind of feeding, and the care 
observed in their housing and transportation, influence 
the flavor and nutritiousness of the meat obtained from 
them. As a rule, the flesh of young animals is more ten- 
der than that of old ones ; but meat, especially veal, from 
very young animals is unwholesome. 

190. Pork, owing to the quality and quantity of its fat, 
and the compactness of its lean meat, is not readily per- 
meated by the digestive secretions during digestion ; but 
if obtained from animals properly fed and cared for, it is 
serviceable. Salted food, whether meat or fish, in small 
quantity, will stimulate the appetite, and is useful as an 
occasional article of diet. Of all varieties of meat, beef 
is most often used, and is least liable to pall upon the 
appetite. (<x.) 

191. As to poultry and game, tenderness and flavor 
are the most desirable characteristics. Old birds, and old 

1 Hippophagy, or the eating of horse flesh, is advocated by good authori- 
ties, especially when beef is hard to obtain. " Such food is a valuable resource 
in France, where many of the people scarcely ever touch meat, in consequence 
of the enormous disproportion between the production of cattle and the popu- 
lation of the country." 



130 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

game animals, are generally tough and indigestible, and 
their fat is often rank. 1 

192. Fish should be eaten oftener than it is, as a sub- 
stantial food, and not merely as a relish, or simply " for a 
change." The constituents of the meat of different kinds 
of fish vary, however, considerably. Salmon and shad 
contain much fat and nitrogenous matter ; flounders and 
cod-fish a less proportion. The following fish, in the 
order named, contain the largest amount of albuminoids ; 
viz. : red snapper, white fish, brook trout, salmon, blue fish, 
shad, eels, mackerel, halibut, haddock, lake trout, and 
striped bass, and after these the cod and the flounder. ($.) 

193. All fish are best when "in season," but should be 
selected with care. The freshness of a fish is determined 
by the fulness and brightness of the eyeballs, and the 
vivid color of the gills. The sense of smell cannot always 
be relied on in selecting fish, since packing in ice to a 
large extent prevents the escape of odor. 2 

Shell fish, and the flesh from the hind legs of frogs, 
eaten in season, are valuable edibles ; though some of 
these foods at times prove more or less indigestible, and 
excite reddening and an almost unbearable itching of the 
skin, known as "hives" or " nettlerash." («.) 

1 Experienced poulterers and butchers claim that every variety of fowl and 
game has its particular season, and at such times the flesh will be found tender 
and palatable, even in old birds, just as fruit eaten " in season " is far prefer- 
able to that which is forced for an early market. 

2 " I ought, perhaps, to refer briefly to the very widespread but unfounded 
notion that fish is particularly valuable for brain food, because of its large 
contents of phosphorus; suffice it to say, that there is no evidence as yet 
(though we hope to have more data before long) to prove that the flesh of fish 
is especially richer in phosphorus than other meats; and even if it were so, 
there is no proof that it would be on that account more valuable for brain 
food. The questions of the nourishment of the brain and the sources of intel- 
lectual energy are too abstruse for speedy solution in the present condition of 
our knowledge." — Extract from Paper read before the American Fish Cidtur- 
ists' Association by Prof. W. O. Atwater of Wesleyan University, 1880. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 131 

194. Meat partially decomposed is preferred by some ; 
and, though the stomach may by habit become accustomed 
to such food, yet, in the majority of cases, it either causes 
indigestion and severe sickness, or deteriorates the system 
so that it easily succumbs to contagious and infectious dis- 
eases, (a.) It sometimes happens, notwithstanding the 
vigilance of health authorities, that unwholesome meat is 
sold in the shops. Therefore it is important that buyers 
should know what constitutes good meat. (5.) 

195. Again, the value of meat as a food is too fre- 
quently diminished by the condition in which it is eaten. 
Overdone meat is more or less insipid and indigestible in 
proportion to the prolonged action of heat. Meat which 
is eaten just warmed through, or in a raw state, may prove 
dangerous to health, from the trichinae or other animal- 
culae it is liable to contain. To destroy these parasites, a 
heat nearly equal to that of boiling water (212°) is be- 
lieved by good authorities to be necessary. 1 In fact, meat 
should be cooked just enough to coagulate its albumen and 
blood, develop its flavor, and render it tender and agree- 
able to the sight. 

196. Milk is justly considered the " model food " ; com- 
bining, as it does, all necessary food elements in the form 
most digestible for the majority of persons. It sustains 
the life of infants at a time when the digestive organs are 
most sensitive. It should be the principal food of children, 
and is capable of sustaining the life of adults. Contrary 
to a popular belief, milk is of decided value in fevers and 
many other ailments. Persons with whom milk does not 
agree, or whom it is saioVto make "bilious," will often be 

1 The cases of " parasite poisoning " occur in persons who have eaten raw 
or underdone meat, as in sausages, pork or veal pies, from the inner parts of 
a roast, etc. 



132 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

able to digest it if it is taken in small quantities warm 
and fresh from the animal, or with the addition of one- 
fifth or one-sixth lime water, or one-half seltzer water. 1 
Necessary as good milk is, it is a common experience to 
receive it deprived of its cream, diluted with water, or 
otherwise adulterated by dishonest dealers. 2 It is capable 
of absorbing noxious odors and emanations, and may con- 
vey the infection of scarlet and typhoid fevers from in- 
fected milk rooms. So susceptible is even the very best 
milk to change, that a thunder storm, or exposure to heat, 
or the contact with the smallest particle of sour milk, will 
render it unfit for use. Great care, therefore, is to be 
observed in keeping milk. The store rooms, as well as the 
vessels containing it, should be clean and free from odors. 

197. Buttermilk, or milk deprived of most of its fat in 
the process of butter making, is a wholesome drink, pleas- 
ant for summer use. It is sometimes prescribed for inva- 
lids. Skim-milk, or that from which the cream has been 
in part removed, is more valuable than buttermilk, as it 

1 " Composition of cow's milk : — 

Water 87.02 parts. 

Casein 4.48 " 

Butter 3.13 " 

Sugar of milk 4.77 " 

Mineral ingredients 0.60 " 

100.00." — Dalton. 
The value of milk as a food is not appreciated by many people, though it 
forms a large part of the diet of certain communities. It is too often regarded 
merely as a " drink," a "sup," or a "taste," and not as a nutritious article 
of food. Goat's milk is a good substitute for cow's milk, though not so readily 
digested. In the early history of many of our large cities, goats and cows 
were driven from door to door so that the milk might be obtained warm and 
fresh. 

2 Milk may even appear rich (due to its cream or fat, which rises to the 
surface), and yet be deficient in albumen and salts. It is a sad fact that in 
large cities, unwholesome milk, known as " swill milk," "skimmed milk," 
etc., is largely consumed by the children of the poor, to the exclusion of other 
food, and is responsible for many deaths among them. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 133 

contains more of the various ingredients of milk. Whey, 
or milk from which most of the casein has been removed 
in the process of cheese making, even when slightly sour, 
is readily digested, and can be made palatable by adding 
to it a little nutmeg and sugar. 1 

198. Butter is a most important food, if fresh and 
sweet. It consists principally of the fat of milk, with 
water, and a small quantity of casein and salts. " Oleomar- 
garine," when made from healthy beef fat, is undoubtedly 
preferable to poor butter, and for cooking purposes it is 
superior to much of the fat that is used, but it is not so 
palatable or nutritious as good butter. 2 

199. Cheese contains the nitrogenous elements of milk, 
but not in a very digestible form. It should not be eaten 
in large quantities by any one ; and, for children and per- 
sons with weak digestion, it is not suitable, except in mi- 
nute amount. Very young children should never eat it. 
New cheese is more digestible. Old cheese, however, in 
small quantity, is good for an appetizer; but skim-milk 
cheese is almost pure casein and hard to digest. 

200. Eggs are, like milk, typical articles of food. 3 They 

1 In referring to buttermilk, Dr. Chambers says, " it is refreshing and nutri- 
tious, and to see it given to pigs, instead of being distributed to the neighbors, 
makes the philanthropist's heart bleed." " Some think that skim-milk is 
worth very little, and buttermilk still less, whilst they give whey (if at all) 
only to the sick. This is a very great mistake, and the poor should get all the 
buttermilk and skim-milk they can obtain ; they may be purchased when new 
milk could not be afforded." — Foods. Edward Smith, M.D. 

2 Kecently there has been introduced into the market a substance made 
from cotton-seed oil, called " cuisine," which can be substituted for lard and 
cheap butter in cooking. 

3 " Composition of eggs: — 

WHITE OF EGG. YOLK OF EGG. 

Water 80.00 53.78 

Albumen and mucus .. 15.28 12.75 

Yellow oil 28.75 

Salts 4.72 4.72 

100.00 100.00."— Dalton. 



134 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

are most digestible when eaten soft boiled, or in omelets, 
or incorporated with sngar, starch, or flour, as in plain 
puddings. 1 

201. Vegetable foods include the cereals or "bread 
stuffs," " garden produce," and fruits. 

The cereal grains most commonly used as food are 
wheat, barley, oats, corn, rye, and rice. Wheat is rich in 
nitrogenous matter, salts, and starch, and is generally con- 
sidered to be among the cereal foods, — like beef among 
meats, — the foremost in nutritive value. Barley ranks 
next. Rye, though containing a large amount of nitrogen, 
is not generally so readily digested as wheat and barley. 
Oatmeal and corn contain much nitrogen, and more fat 
than the other cereal grains, and are valuable to persons 
not troubled with weak digestion. Rice, though easily 
digested, contains a large amount of starch, and but little 
nitrogen; hence, to satisfy the appetite, it must be eaten 
in large quantity if taken alone. 

202. Cereals resemble each other, in that each kind 
consists of a starchy body enclosed in a skin or husk 
(sometimes of several layers) which, when detached from 
the kernel, is known as " bran." Immediately beneath this 
husk is a layer rich in gluten, oil, and salts. The husk is 
generally woody, fibrous, and indigestible. When re- 
moved by the process of milling, the whole grains may 
be used, or they may be crushed, as in the case of wheaten 
grits and coarse oatmeal, or ground fine, as wheat flour 
and maize meal. The finest and whitest wheat flour 
often contains much starch and but very little gluten. 
Flour best adapted for family use is that which has a 

1 Eggs as ordinarily fried are particularly hard to digest. On the contrary, 
an egg broken into a hot dish (containing a piece of good butter), over a hot 
fire, rapidly coagulates, and is of easy digestion if eaten while hot. 






FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 135 

slight yellowish tinge, is not very fine, and contains suffi- 
cient gluten to form a coherent ductile dough when mixed 
with a little water. Flour made from white wheat is 
whiter than that from red wheat ; but the yellowish tinge 
in the darker brands of flour somewhat fades out as the 
flour dries. 1 It will make darker looking bread than 
pastry flour, but is sweeter and more nutritious. 2 

203. Bread is ordinarily made from wheat flour, since 
other flours do not easily mix for baking ; though rye, maize, 
and oatmeal may be combined in varying proportions with 
wheat flour for various kinds of bread. Good bread may 
well be called the " staff of life," the only nutritious ele- 
ment deficient in it being fat. 3 This is commonly supplied 
by butter or oil. 4 Hot, poorly cooked, or very moist 
bread is not digested with ease. Leavened bread, i.e., 
bread "raised," or made light and spongy by means of 
carbonic acid gas forced through the sponge (as the doughy 
mass is called), is much more easily digested than unleav- 
ened bread, — which is a mixture merely of flour, water, 
and salt, — such as "pilot biscuit" and "hard tack." 

1 The old-time custom of squeezing the dry flour in the hand, for the pur- 
pose of testing the proportion of gluten as shown by its cohesive qualities, will 
not hold good with flour made by the "new process"; and even the test of 
pulling the moist flour between the fingers does not always prove true. In 
fact, the only absolute proof of good flour seems to be in the cooking, though it 
is said that flour rich in gluten takes up a great deal of water in proportion to 
its bulk. 

2 Oatmeal and barley are sometimes not relished, because of a "burnt" 
taste given in the process of kiln drying, or a musty odor and taste from 
having been kept in a moist state. "The steam-cooked cereals," being partly 
cooked, are easily prepared for the table, and, owing to the partial change of 
starch into dextrine, are quite readily digested. Rye should be selected with 
care, as diseased or spurred rye, — known as ergot, — may cause severe sick- 
ness and even death. Mouldy maize is capable of producing a serious skin 
disease known as Pellagra, which is said to be quite common in Lombardy. 

3 "Good flour, well baked, yields about 136 lbs. of bread per 100 lbs. of 
flour." — Handbook of Hygiene, etc. Wilson. 

4 Butter therefore is the "golden head " of the " staff." 



136 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

Leavening is effected by means of a fermentation gene- 
rated in dough by yeast, or by a batter of flour and water, 
kept at a temperature of 100° to 110° F., for five or six 
hours, 1 or by a piece of fermented dough. Carbonic acid 
gas, forced through dough by machinery, makes what is 
called " aerated bread.'' This gas is generated in the mak- 
ing of bread, biscuit, etc., by the proper combination of 
soda and cream of tartar, or other substances. Unbolted 
wheat flour makes the brown bread of Europe, and Graham 
bread. 2 Such bread is wholesome, but contains so much 
bran that it should be eaten with caution by persons of 
weak digestion. 3 

204. Vegetables are furnished in our best markets in 
greater or less variety throughout the entire year. Not- 
withstanding this supply, they are comparatively but 
little used, or certain kinds are used to the exclusion of 
others, («.) No vegetable is more useful than the white, 
or so-called Irish potato. It may well be called the king 
of vegetables, for it agrees with the majority of persons, 
and can be obtained in every season of the year. And 
yet, " hardly 2 T ^ of its 25 per cent of solid matters is 
nitrogenous." 4 Potatoes are deficient also in fat and 
salts, and should be eaten with butter and salt, pot liquor, 
meat gravy, or fat meat. They resemble rice in the large 
amount of starch they contain, and, like rice, must be 
consumed in considerable quantity if they form the main 
ingredient of the diet. 

1 A little salt added to the batter promotes the fermentation, and gives it 
the name of "salt-raised bread." When milk is used instead of water, it is 
called "milk-emptyings bread." 

2 Named after Mr. Graham, the founder of so-called "Grahamism." 

9 The brown bread made from flour, in which bran or woody fibre is 
almost entirely excluded, is readily digested. 
4 Letheby on Food. 






FOODS. ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 137 

Mapother claims that the almost exclusive reliance upon 
the potato in certain parts of Ireland has depressed the 
spirit and energy of the inhabitants, and he urges them to 
raise and use more of other vegetables. 1 

205. Sweet potatoes, though not quite so digestible as 
white, are wholesome. The yam varieties, which are eaten 
so much in warm countries, are sometimes mixed in corn 
meal bread. Beets, carrots, parsnips, onions, leeks, oyster 
plant, squash, and other vegetables, are valuable additions 
to the table. 2 Potatoes, fresh, succulent, and green, or 
salad vegetables, — such as tomatoes, cabbage, greens, 
lettuce, celery, corn, and cucumbers, — are excellent pre- 
ventives of scurvy, as we have already seen ; and in the 
spring their juices and salts are eminently beneficial. 3 (a.) 

206. Peas, beans, and lentils contain considerable starch 
and a large amount of albuminoid material. When dried 
they are not easily digested by persons leading a sedentary 
life. Yet on account of the ease with which they can 
be transported and preserved, these foods are valuable 
wherever large numbers are to be provided for. But, as 
is the case with some other vegetable foods, they require 
more thorough cooking and mastication than meat, though 
there is a popular belief to the contrary. 4 («.) 

1 Mapother undoubtedly refers to the poorest classes, who cannot obtain 
sufficient nitrogenous food, — even milk to use with their potatoes, — and wbo 
are also depressed by the want of variety in food. 

2 Carrots and some other vegetables are considered by many persons as fit 
only for cattle; whereas, the fact is, that if the same attention was paid to 
their preparation and cooking, as is spent upon other foods, they would often- 
times be considered even delicious. The French and Germans excel in this 
direction. 

3 Such vegetables, together with fruits, are preferable to sulphur and mo- 
lasses or so-called " spring medicines." 

4 Jt is said that General Scott, in referring to want of variety in the dietary 
of many of the soldiers, used to say " tbat beans had killed more than bullets." 



138 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

20 7. Fruits are particularly esteemed for their juices, 
which consist of water, salts, sugar, and vegetable acids, (a.) 
The amount of albuminoid material they contain is very 
small. Fresh fruits serve to quench the thirst, to supply 
acids, sugar, etc., to stimulate the appetite for more sub- 
stantial food, and to assist in its digestion. 1 Grapes, 
peaches, oranges, strawberries, cherries, blackberries, rasp- 
berries, plums, bananas, apples, pears, and apricots, are 
considered the most digestible. 2 

208. On the other hand, melons and other cold, watery 
fruits, are likely to interfere with digestion, especially if 
eaten abundantly at meal times. 3 Fruit is said to be 
" gold in the morning, silver at noon, and lead at night." 
Cooked fruits may be eaten with benefit at any meal. 
Fruits with small seeds should, if taken in large quantity, 
be eaten with bread, so that the small and numerous seeds 
may not prove irritant, or lodge in the appendix vermifor- 
mis. Dried fruits, raisins, dates, etc., contain much sugar, 
and must be eaten in smaller quantity than fresh fruits. 4 
Nuts contain a large amount of nitrogenous and more ^r 
less fat material, and should be thoroughly chewed, and 
eaten in moderation. 

209. Condiments are substances which sharpen the 
appetite, give a relish to food, and stimulate the digestive 

1 "In hot climates these refreshing fruits grow in great abundance, and ren- 
der a residence in the tropics tolerable. A slice of melon or other fruit is the 
common gratuity given in addition to the regular charge for any service in hot 
climates, and forms a contrast to the lump of fat which is its equivalent with 
the Esquimaux." — Maintenance of Health. Fothergill. 

2 Bananas contain nitrogen, and form an important article of food in the 
countries where they are raised. 

3 Fresh, ripe melons of a good variety are advantageous in fevers, and 
whenever the system is being weakened by watery discharges. 

4 Dates, used so largely as food in hot countries, are said not to be the 
saccharine dates we eat as sweetmeats, but are almost entirely farinaceous. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 139 

organs. Of these, salt, pepper (especially the red), mus- 
tard, vinegar, ginger, and horse-radish are the most import- 
ant. 1 Pickles, olives, lemon juice, and sauces belong also 
to this class of accessory foods. An immoderate use of 
condiments is injurious, for it causes the consumption of 
more food than the system requires, and perverts the 
appetite. 

Savory herbs, sage, thyme, sweet marjoram, parsley, 
etc., should be used to make certain foods palatable, and 
can often be substituted with advantage for more stimu- 
lating condiments, (a.) 

210. Drinks may be divided into natural and artificial. 
The first class includes water, and milk ; while the second 
embraces tea, coffee, cocoa, and alcoholic stimulants. 
Water, as we have seen, is an important constituent of 
the body and of all kinds of food. («.) It is of the first 
importance that drinking water should be good. Pure 
water, chemically speaking, or that consisting only of 
hydrogen and oxygen, is probably never found in nature, 
but may be obtained by distillation. It has a flat taste 
and is not palatable. Rain water, especially that which 
falls at the end of a shower, is nearly pure, and is more 
palatable than distilled water on account of the air it 
contains. In places where the water s apply is not abun- 
dant, rain water may be used for drinking if carefully 
collected and filtered ; but if allowed to run over dirty 
roofs, or over decaying leaves and other vegetable 
growths, it assumes an unpleasant taste and may prove 
hurtful. 

1 "Hard work and attendant good appetite require little else than common 
salt as a condiment, which should be plentifully used. It was said by Plutarch 
that hunger and salt were the only sauces known to the ancients ; and the very 
word 'sauce' is derived from the Latin word salsus, 'salted.'" — Health; 
and How to Promote it. McSherry. 



140 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

211- Drinking water is usually obtained as surface 
water from brooks, rivers, lakes, etc. ; " ground water " 
from shallow wells and springs ; and " deep-seated water " 
from deep wells and springs. Probably the best form of 
drinking water is good spring water, that is, from rain or 
snow, which, after filtering through rocks and gravelly 
soil, gushes forth clear and sparkling into . the air. (a.) 
Water from deep wells, fed as they are by underground 
streams, is much purer than that from shallow wells, 
which is largely the drainage from the upper or im purer 
layers of the soil, and has less chance of being thoroughly 
filtered by percolation through a great depth of soil. 1 Ex- 
amples of deep wells are the artesian wells, and such wells 
as that at Garden City, L.I, 2 and that at Prospect Park, 
Brooklyn, which last supplies with water a large part of 
Coney Island five miles away. 

212. Stagnant water, or that containing any decaying 
animal or vegetable matter, is unfit to drink. 3 Sometimes 



1 Examinations made from time to time of the water from shallow wells, 
in cities and towns, have shown it to he frequently contaminated hy filth 
from cesspools and other sources. These reservoirs in many instances were 
but from 25 to 30 feet distant, and sometimes on a higher plane; accord- 
ing to good authorities they should be at least 100 feet away from drinking 
wells. 

2 Artesian wells vary in depth from one to three or more thousand feet. 
Such wells are used in abattoirs, breweries, and other large establishments, 
where larger quantities of water are needed than can be furnished by the 
ordinary water supply of cities. 

3 Dead animals remaining in running streams may poison the water for a 
long distance from the source of the trouble. According to Dr. Smart of the 
U. S. Army, "shallow wells and defective cisterns are often found filled with 
water possessing many of the characteristics of marsh water, and at such 
places will be found cases of malaria, though the blame is invariably laid to a 
swamp or a mill-pond if there happen to be one near. Wherever there is a 
plenty of pure water, free from decaying organic matter, there is health. " — 
From Paper read at the American Public Health Association's Annual Meet- 
ing, 1883. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 141 

water is a fruitful source of the most serious infectious 
diseases, such as typhoid fever and cholera, by reason of 
the disease germs which it contains, and which may be 
carried long distances in it. The impurities in deep 

and sluggish streams are more likely to continue than in 
brooks and other shallow, active streams, whose water is 
more freely exposed to the purifying influences of the 
atmosphere ; yet the larger streams, on account of the 
abundance of water they furnish, and the ease with which 
it can be obtained, are mainly relied upon for the water 
supply of cities and large towns. Water taken from them 
for drinking purposes should be obtained from the middle 
of the stream and somewhat below the surface, as the ref- 
use from factories, drains, etc., which finds its way to a 
greater or less extent into these rivers and creeks, is most 
apt to flow along the sides. 1 

213. The mode of conveying drinking water from its 
source of supply is a matter of great importance. Usually 
wood, lead, or iron pipes are used for this purpose. Rain 
water, or any water which is deficient in saline ingredients, 
flowing through lead pipes, will dissolve enough lead to 
render it poisonous. Saline ingredients in most river, 
well, and spring waters, by partial decomposition, line the 
pipes with a crust, and generally prevent this absorption. 
Sometimes the water, especially if hot, will dissolve enough 



1 " The river Rhine, it is well known, 
Doth wash your city of Cologne ; 
But tell me, nymphs ! what power divine 
Shall henceforth wash the river Rhine? " — Coleridge. 

The answer is, — the oxidizing influences of the atmosphere. It has heen 
shown that the farther away from the source of the impurities, the better is 
the water for drinking purposes. This is true of ordinary organic impurities, 
but there is reason to believe that the germs of disease are not so readily ren- 
dered harmless. 



142 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

lead to become injurious. 1 It is wise to allow both hot 
and cold water to run a while before using it for drinking 
or cooking. Hot water acts upon iron pipes and acquires 
a disagreeable taste. To obviate the risks above referred 
to, block tin, tin-lined lead pipes, and glass-lined iron pipes 
are now recommended by sanitary authorities. 

214. Ordinary drinking waters usually contain in 
various proportions saeh salts, as common salt, and sodium, 
lime and magnesium carbonates, also some air, as well as 
carbonic acid gas, which last gives a sparkling appearance 
and an agreeable taste to water. Mineral waters, whether 
natural or artificial, contain in addition, iron, sulphur, or 
other mineral ingredients, and are useful as medicine. 

Water containing an excess of salts, especially of lime 
and magnesia, is known as hard water. This hardness 
may be temporary or permanent ; if temporary, it is due 
to calcium and magnesium bi-carbonates, which salts may 
be precipitated by boiling, thus rendering the water soft, 
and. in the best condition for drinking. Permanently hard 
water is due to calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate, 
which cannot be precipitated by boiling. 2 

Hard water is not suitable for cleansing purposes, as it 
forms an insoluble compound with the fats of the soap 
used, which floats as a scum upon the surface of the 
water. 3 



1 Lead pipes should not be used for soda-water fountains, as the carbonated 
water dissolves lead readily. The presence of lead in water may be detected 
by adding a few drops of a solution of sulphuret of iron, which, if lead be 
present, will render the water black, or dark brown, owing to the sulphuret of 
lead formed. 

2 Hard water may be softened by the addition of wood ashes, or sodium 
carbonate 

3 It is said that in Glasgow, by the introduction of water from Loch Ka- 
trine, the inhabitants saved in one year thousands of dollars in soap, the water 
used before having been very hard. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 143 

215. The best drinking water is that which is clean, 
colorless, and without odor even after boiling , and is soft, 
and has just enough salt, air, and carbonic acid in it to 
make it palatable. Water may be clear and sparkling 
and still be impure and dangerous ; especially is this true 
of well water which has filtered through graveyards or 
soils polluted by cesspools, barnyards, etc. That dirty 
looking waters are not necessarily unfit for drinking is 
shown by the fact that the muddy water of the Missis- 
sippi is drunk with impunity by those accustomed to it. 

The " green scum " found on ponds and along the edges 
of some streams consists mainly of lowly-organized plants, 
algae, etc. In small quantity they are not injurious, but 
if luxuriant, their growth indicates the presence of organic 
matter which is hurtful. If they die and decay, they tend 
to spoil the water in which they are. (a.) Water from 
melting ice is usually purer than that from which the ice 
was formed, for freezing is a purifying process; but ice 
from stagnant ponds, or from water which contains much 
organic matter, is unfit for use. Whenever there is 

reason to believe that water is unwholesome, it should be 
examined both microscopically and chemically by compe- 
tent persons. 1 

1 Organic matters in drinking water, in sufficient quantity to be injurious, 
may sometimes be detected by the following simple means : First, evaporate a 
saucer full of water by heat, and observe the color of the residue. If it is 
brown or black, or turns black on further heating, the water is unsafe; Second, 
" Add a lump of white sugar to a vial of water, and keep it corked for a few 
days. If it contain much organic matter it will become in that time percep- 
tibly turbid; " Third, " if it has an unpleasant smell when corked in a bottle 
and kept in a tolerably warm place (say at 70° F.) for three or four days." 

Chemists judge of the amount of the animal or more dangerous impurities 
in water by the relative quantities present of the nitrates, nitrites, chlorides, 
and of the ammonia salts, — the result of the decomposition of albuminoids. 
Recently it has been proposed to judge of the wholesomeness of waters by the 
relative ease with which different specimens support the growth of vegetable 
organisms introduced into them. 



144 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

216. Water, by various methods, may be rid of much 
of its injurious matter. Boiling will precipitate the bi-car- 
bonate of lime and some of the coagulable organic matter, 
and destroy some of the disease germs. Aeration will 
render stale or confined waters palatable. Allowing them 
to settle will render some muddy waters fit for drinking. 
This settling may be facilitated by previously stirring a 
little alum into the water. 1 Proper filtration will partially 
remove not only suspended but even some dissolved 
organic impurities. The filtrating substance may be 
porous earth, sand, charcoal, certain insoluble powders, 
fine gravel, sponge, etc., either alone or variously com- 
bined. Charcoal, oxide of iron, and sand, are the 
most active. Filters act partly by sifting out solid par- 
ticles, and partly by an oxidation of the organic sub- 
stances, by means of the oxygen in the pores of the 
material used. 2 (a.) 

217. Coffee and tea are not positive foods, but in mod- 
erate quantities stimulate dormant energies, tend to retard 
waste, and assist in the digestion of other foods. Hence 
they are best adapted for use after a hearty meal, but can- 
not take the place of the positive foods. They are supe- 
rior at nearly all times to alcoholic stimulants, and are 
especially valuable in armies, or wherever the food supply 
is precarious. But they should not be taken in large 
amounts, nor very strong, for, thus taken, they act ulti- 

1 In India a kind of nut is used to coagulate the albuminous matters, and 
precipitate dirt, etc. 

2 " Probably the best filter is one composed of finely-divided silicon and 
carbon, pressed into a solid cake. This filter, when dry and clean, will remove 
a large quantity of organic impurity as well as lead from the water passed 
through it. Prepared for soldiers' use, it was carried by the English soldiers 
in the late war in Egypt, and found to be of great service. Placed in even the 
dirtiest water, the fluid was sucked through the filtering mass by means of a 
rubber tube and mouth piece, and was rendered fit for drinking." 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 145 

mately as depressants of the nervous system. If relied 
upon to supply by their stimulus the place of nourishing 
food, they produce indigestion and nervousness. Tea and 
coffee are similar in action, though they sometimes affect 
persons differently. Each contains a volatile oil which 
gives odor and flavor, an astringent (tannic acid), and an 
active principle, — theine in tea, and caffeine in coffee. 1 

218. Chocolate and cocoa contain fatty matter, also 
albuminous and starchy materials, and a substance similar 
to theine and caffeine known as theobromine. They are not 
so stimulating as coffee and tea, but are much better as 
food. As Dr. Edward Smith remarks in his valuable book 
on " Health," " Perhaps few foods are so nutritious or 
will satisfy the appetite so well as cocoa and milk, if 
plenty of cocoa be used, and it is equally good for all 
ages, classes, and circumstances." 2 

1 Recently rations of coffee have been supplied with advantage to the sailors 
on some of the great ocean steamers in place of their much-esteemed " grog." 

An investigation a few years ago, by the Massachusetts State Board of 
Health, showed that throughout New England much of the ill health was due 
to the large quantity of tea and coffee drunk, to the exclusion of other foods. 
Physicians find that much of the dyspepsia, bad feelings, nervous ail- 
ments, etc., among women are due to the fact that ladies, in the absence of 
their husbands, live upon tea and bread rather than do the cooking, and also 
to the fact that among the poor tea is used because it is considered cheap and 
nutritious. 

Teas are classified as green and black : the first being the young leaves, 
steamed, withered, rolled, and dried quickly. Black tea consists of the older 
leaves which have been slowly dried, and have undergone chemical changes on 
exposure to air, etc. A smaller amount of green tea is necessary than of black. 
In preparing tea for a beverage, the object is to retain the odor as well as the 
other constituents. Lukewarm water wall not dissolve the thein. Boiling will 
drive off the volatile oil and dissolve too much tannin. Boiling water poured 
upon tea in close vessels will retain its constituents. Among tea merchants 
and the Chinese the plan is to put tea into a cup, pour boiling water over it, 
cover the cup with a saucer, and let it stand a while. 

2 The fresher cocoa and chocolate are the better. Cocoa, especially if re- 
tained in close packages in close apartments, becomes musty; and, if exposed 
to the air for a long time, loses its flavor; hence, in some cities, it is freshly 
prepared every day by dealers: Unlike coffee and tea, there should be no 
grounds which cannot be eaten. 



146 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

219. Alcoholic drinks comprise : first, malt liquors, ale, 
beer, porter, and stout; second, wines of various kinds; 
and third, spirits, or whiskey, rum, gin, and brandy. 
There are also other powerful stimulants, such as the 
cordials ; and the milder stimulants, such as cider, and 
beer made from roots. 

220. All of the above fluids contain alcohol in varying 
proportions as the active ingredient. 1 This substance, one 
of the results of fermentation, acts as a temporary stimu- 
lant to the body, if taken in small quantities. In larger 
amount it acts strongly upon the nervous system, deadens 
sensibility, and induces irregular muscular action, — in 
other words, intoxicates. 

In still larger amount it is a decided poison, capable of 
destroying life in the young, the feeble, the old, and those 
not accustomed to its use. The tendency of the indulgence 
in any form of alcoholic drink is, to weaken and at last 
destroy the control of the moral nature, as well as to 
undermine the general health. "The evils of alcoholic 
intemperance are familiar to all, and it is needless to 
repeat the details of its horrors. The sad story is told 
every morning in our police courts, and the newspapers 
are foul with their recitals of desperate deeds. Yet 
the worst evils of intemperance are those the least 
known and least noticed. The gradual changes induced 
in the nervous system, the slow poisoning of the great 
centers of thought, — the transmission from parent to 
child, from generation to generation, of nervous tenden- 

1 Malt liquors contain the smallest portion of alcohol, 10 per cent being 
about the largest amount found in them. Light wines, such as champagne, 
contain about 10 per cent; heavier wines, such as sherry and port, 17 to 19 per 
cent; and wines which have been " brandied " or " fortified," i.e., had spirits 
added, have as high as 35 per cent. Of spirits, gin has 38 to 39 per cent by 
volume; whiskey, 45 to 46 per cent; rum, 48 \ per cent; and brandy, 50 to 54 
per cent. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 147 

cies, progressive mental weakness, imbecility, insanity, 
idiocy, are evils which far outweigh the results of the 
midnight brawl, the mother's sorrow^, and the orphan's 
tears." 

221. Malt liquors contain some of the nourishing 
elements of the barley and wheat from which they are 
made, and the malt acts as a tonic ; but with the excess of 
alcohol and water imbibed, habitual drinkers of malt 
liquors are likely to be bloated from the thinning of their 
blood, and to become logy and stupid. 

Light wines, cider, ginger beer, and similar drinks, act 
merely as temporary stimulants to the circulation, and thus 
increase temporarily nervous energy. Frequent resort 
to them induces artificial tastes and appetites, and the 
desire for the stronger stimulation which heavy wines and 
spirits afford. Spirits, the strongest of the alcoholic stim- 
ulants, cannot be used with too much caution. They fre- 
quently produce fatty degeneration of the heart and other 
important organs, cause thickening and contraction of the 
connective tissue of the liver, kidneys, and brain, and so 
impair their functional activity. 

Notwithstanding the widespread consumption of stimu- 
lants thoroughout the world, alcohol is not necessary for 
persons in health. It is a valuable medicinal agent ; but its 
abuse even as a medicine should be guarded against, (a.) 

222. Alcoholic drinks are frequently taken under the 
impression that they afford warmth. But the increased 
bodily temperature they arouse is only temporary, and 
depends mainly upon the stimulating effects of the alcohol 
upon the circulation. The bodily heat is in the end 
diminished, so much sometimes that persons relying upon 
such stimulation for warmth are apt to suffer intensely 



148 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 

when exposed to severe cold. 1 (a.) From the fact that 
these drinks by their stimulating properties prevent tem- 
porary waste, they are sometimes spoken of as food, but 
are inferior to hot cocoa, tea, coffee, or soups, the stimulant 
effects of which are more permanent, and are not followed, 
as a rule, by depression, as in the case of the alcoholic 
stimulants, thereby producing an apparent need of re- 
peated stimulation. 2 

Indeed so great and unnatural a craving is often gener- 
ated, that men will drink with avidity alcohol in which are 
decomposing materials or the bitterest substances, such as 
quinine, or will drain at one gulp the vilest and strongest 
liquor without an attempt at dilution. 

223. Tobacco is another substance which is largely used 
and also abused. Its temperate use may not apparently 
affect adults unpleasantly, and under certain circumstances 
may even be advised, yet its use by the young is attended 
with more or less danger, depending upon the age and 
temperament, and upon the quantity of tobacco used. 3 

1 " The fall of temperature, after the use of alcohol, is to be explained by its 
effect in dilating the capillaries of the skin, thus allowing freer transpiration 
of watery vapor and radiation of heat, and this supplies a strong argument 
against the consumption of alcohol by those who are likely to be exposed 
to a very low atmospheric temperature." — Human Physiolor/ij. Henry 
Power, F.R.L.S. 

2 Dr. Kane, in his "Arctic Explorations," says, "Coffee in the morning 
seemed to last the men through a large part of the day, and tea soothed them 
after a day's labor and exposure. They both operated upon fatigued and over- 
taxed men like a charm, and their superiority over alcoholic stimulants was 
very marked." 

" Two tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, with one of pease meal, made into a liquid, 
with milk and boiling water, and flavored according to taste with salt or with 
sugar, forms a drink worth any number of glasses of ale or other alcoholic 
fluid." — Temperance Lesson Book. Dr. B. W. Richardson. London. 

3 Unfortunately a common and reprehensible habit in our cities and large 
towns, among even very young boys, is that of cigarette smoking. It is a 
deplorable fact that cigarettes are so cheap and the sale so open that they are 
easily procured by children in many of the candy and notion stores near to 
our public and private schools. 



FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 149 

The habitual use of tobacco, especially by the young and 
persons of a nervous temperament, is liable to produce an 
irritable condition of the heart and brain, to destroy the 
appetite, decrease the digestive secretions, and seriously 
impair the health, (a.) Even when used in small amount 
by such persons, the capacity for study and application 
is lessened by "headache, confusion of intellect, loss of 
memory, impaired power of attention, lassitude, indispo- 
sition to muscular effort, nausea, want of appetite, dyspep- 
sia, palpitation, tremulousness, disturbed sleep, impaired 
vision, etc." 2 

By some, tobacco has been ranked as a food, but it con- 
tains no nourishment. Its action is upon the nervous 
system and at times, as with overworked and tired soldiers 
on a march, it may arouse the dormant nervous energies. 

224. Other substances besides alcohol and tobacco, 
which are largely used for their stimulant or narcotic 
effects, are opium, Indian hemp or hasheesh, coca, and the 
betel nut. The frequent use of any of them decreases the 
appetite, and creates a desire for stimulation. Opium is 
the most seductive of them all: "By its soothing and 
exhilarating influence it gains such a hold on the moral 
and physical nature that the strongest will is unable to 
emancipate the victim from its enchantment." It is indis- 
pensible as a medicine, but its frequent use as a stimulant, 
and in cough mixtures, soothing syrups, cordials, carmini- 
tives, and other compounds, interferes with the assimila- 
tion of food, and enervates the system. The same effects 
follow the use of chloral, a substance which is too fre- 
quently employed without reason, and indiscriminately. 

1 Extract from a report by a special army medical board, to the Superin- 
tendent of the U. S. Naval Academy, Dec. 3 ; 1875, on the use of tobacco by 
the cadets. 



150 FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC STIMULANTS. 



QUESTIONS. 



1. How may foods be classified ? 

2. What do animal foods comprise ? And what are the components 

of meat? 

3. To what is the tendency to excess in the consumption of animal 

food due ? 

4. What meats are least digestible, and why? 

5. What is to be said of poultry ? Game? Fish? 

6. Why should partially decomposed meat be avoided ? 

7. What are the objects of cooking meat? 

8. What is considered the " model" food, and why is it so called? 

9. How should milk be protected from impurities ? 

10. Why are skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey useful ? 

11. What is said of butter and its substitutes ? 

12. What is to be said of cheese ? Eggs? 

13. What do vegetable foods include, and what cereal grains are most 

used? 

14. What is to be said of wheat ? Barley? Eye? Oatmeal? Corn? 

Rice? 

15. How may the cereals be prepared for eating, and what is their 

structure ? 

16. Which is the best flour for family use? 

17. What kinds of flour are used for bread, and how is it raised? 

18. Why are potatoes especially commended? 

19. Why should other vegetables be used? 

20. What is to be said of peas, beans, and lentils? 

21. Why are fruits esteemed, when is the best time to eat them, and 

why should caution be observed when eating small seeded 
fruits ? 

22. What are condiments, and how should they be used ? 

23. How may drinks be divided? What is to be said of water and of 

its different kinds, and how may it be purified ? 

24. What benefit is derived from tea? Coffee? Chocolate and 

cocoa? 

25. What is said of the use and abuse of alcoholic drinks ; of tobacco 

and other stimulants and narcotics ? 



ANALYSIS. 



151 



ANALYSIS OF THE TENTH CHAPTER. 



FOODS. 



I. Animal 



f Of Quadrupeds. 
f Flesh, etc... I £o£y. 
[ " Fish. 
Milk and its products, — Butter, cheese, etc. 

I Eggs. 



Cereals. 
II. Vegetable . . . ^ Garden produce. 
Fruits. 



III. Mineral Water and salts. 

f Condiments. 

IV. Miscellaneous -l 



I Drinks . . . 



( Water i Ordinary. 
r Natural j 1 Mineral. 

(Milk. 



f Coffee. 

I Artificial <! Tea. 



[ Chocolate, etc. 



ALCOHOLIC AND OTHER STIMULANTS. 



152 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 




Fig. 47. 

Front view of the organs of circulation. — Veins, black; arteries, with transverse 
lines. Parts on the left side of figure are removed to show some of the deep 
vessels, while the right side shows superficial vessels. 






CHAPTER XL 
THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

225. The blood, as we have seen, is the principal form 
which the nutritive constituents of food take after diges- 
tion. It flows as pure blood in one set of currents, from 
the heart to every cell and tissue for their nourishment, 
and returns in another set of currents to the heart laden 
with waste products, which are expelled from the body 
through the lungs and other excretory organs. This flow 
of the blood to and from the various parts of the body is 
the circulation, and the organs through which it is pro- 
pelled are the organs of circulation. These organs are the 
heart and the blood-vessels, the latter consisting of the 
arteries, capillaries, and veins. 

226. The heart is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped 
organ, about the size of the clenched fist. It is situated 
obliquely in the thoracic cavity, between the two lungs, 
chiefly on the left side of the body. Its lower pointed end, 
or apex, strikes against the walls of the thorax, between 
the fifth and sixth ribs, a little to the left of the breast 
bone. At this point we can best feel the impulse of the 
organ. 1 The broadened upper end, called the base, is 
about on a level with the middle of the breast bone, near 
its junction with the cartilages of the third ribs. Owing 



1 The place and extent of the heart's impulse vary a little with the position 
of the body, and the motions of breathing. The length of the heart is about 
tire inches; its weight in men is about 10 or 12 ounces, in women 8 or 10, 



154 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 



to its surroundings this end of the heart has comparatively 
little motion. A portion of the right and lower border of 
the heart rests upon the diaphragm, and is upon the right 
side of the " median line " of the body. 1 The left border 
is entirely upon the left of this line. (Fig. 47.) 









. 




Fig. 48. 
Heart, frontview. — 1, right ventricle; 2, left ventricle ; 3 and 4, right auricle ; 5 
and 6, left auricle; 7, pulmonary artery; 8, the aorta; 9, superior vena 
cava; 10 and 11, front coronary artery and vein which in part control the 
blood-supply of the substance of the heart; 12, lymphatic vessels. 






1 " A vertical Hue supposed to divide a body longitudinally into two equal 
parts, the one right, the other left." 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. 



LYMPH. 



155 



227. The whole organ, with about two inches of the 
great blood-vessels which arise from it, is enveloped in a 
fibrous sac known as the pericardium. 1 This sac is lined 
with a smooth, glistening membrane, which secretes a 
lubricating fluid called serum, thus permitting the heart 
to move freely and without friction. The interior of the 




Fig. 49. 

Representing the cavities of the heart, and the blood-vessels opening into and 
out of them. The ventricles are separated in the cut to show the commence- 
ment of the aorta. The arrows show the direction of the blood-currents. 

heart is also lined with a smooth, serous membrane, called 
the endocardium, 2 which is similar to and continuous with 
the lining membrane of the blood-vessels. 

228. The heart is divided by muscular walls into 
four compartments or cavities, the two upper ones called 



1 Derived from the Greek, and signifies " around the heart.' 

2 Derived from the Greek, and signifies "within the heart,' 



156 THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

auricles, 1 and the two lower, ventricles. 2 The first two 
have veins which open into them, the last have arteries 
which arise from them. The auricles receive the blood 
coming into them through the veins, and when full simul- 
taneously contract and force it into their respective ven- 
tricles, through openings (one between each auricle and 
ventricle), which are known as the auriculo-ventricular 
openings. The ventricles then simultaneously contract 
and expel the blood into the arteries. (Fig. 49.) 

The openings between the auricles and ventricles, and 
those between the ventricles and the arteries which con- 
nect with them, are guarded by little doors or valves 
composed .of delicate but strong fibrous tissue. These 
open to allow the blood to pass onward in its natural 
course, and then close, thus preventing the blood from 
flowing back, i.e., regurgitating. 3 

The cavities upon the right side of the heart are called, 
respectively, the right auricle and right ventricle, and those 
upon the left side, the left auricle and left ventricle. 4 
The cavities of the left side of the heart are respectively 
smaller than those of the right, but their walls are stronger. 
Especially is this true of the left ventricle, whose function 
it is to send blood through the entire body. (Fig. 50.) 

1 " Little ears " (Latin), so called, it is said, from their resemblance to a 
dog's ears. 

2 Literally, the diminutive of stomach. The appellation is old, and is used 
by Cicero. 

3 The valves between the auricles and ventricles are operated by slender 
but powerful muscles within the ventricles. The tendons of these muscles 
attached to the valves are known as the "chordae tendinae," or tendinous 
cords. (Fig. 50.) The valves between the left auricle and ventricle are known 
as the " mitral," from a supposed resemblance, when they are open, to a mitre. 
Between the right auricle and ventricle are the "tricuspid" valves, i.e., hav- 
ing three points. Between the ventricles and the arteries are the "semilunar " 
valves, so called from their shape. 

4 Sometimes the heart is considered as a double organ, the right side, trans- 
mitting venous blood, is spoken of as the right heart, and the left side, 
transmitting arterial blood, as the left heart. 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 157 

229. The movements of the blood will probably be best 
understood if we follow it from point to point in its 
circuit. 

In the first place the venous or impure blood, collected 
by the smaller veins from the various parts of the body, is 
poured into two great veins which open into the right 
auricle. 1 When the auricle is dilated and filled to its nor- 
mal limit, its walls contract and expel the blood through 



DV 



AV 




-RV 



Fig. 50. 
The heart and some of its vessels ; the ventricles are laid open to show their 
structure. — A, aorta; P A, pulmonary artery; P V, pulmonary veins of left 
auricle; L A, left auricle; D V, descending vein, or superior vena cava; 
A V, ascending vein, or inferior vena cava; L V, left ventricle; R V, right 
ventricle. The relative thickness of the walls of the ventricles are shown, 
also the muscle columns and their tendons, together with the curtain-like 
valves. 

the right ventricular opening into the right ventricle. 
The ventricle thus dilated and filled, contracts, and expels 
its contents through the pulmonary artery into the lungs, 
where the blood is thoroughly distributed by numerous 
" capillary " or hair-like blood-vessels among the air cells, 
and is purified by exchanging its waste products for the 

1 These veins are called " the superior and inferior venae eavae." 



158 THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

oxygen of the air. From the lungs it is carried as pure 
blood by four veins, 1 known as the pulmonary veins, into 
the left auricle. When this auricle is normally dilated 
and filled, the blood is forced through the left ventricular 
opening into the left ventricle. This ventricle, when 
dilated and filled, contracts and sends the blood into the 
aorta, 2 the largest artery in the body, and through its 
dividing and subdividing branches to the capillaries for 
the nourishment of the tissues. Having parted with 
much of its life-giving principles, and acquired the results 
of decay and disintegration in the tissues, the blood 
requires to be re-purified, and commences at the extremi- 
ties or sources of the venous system its return to the lungs. 
Passing successively through the enlarging veins, as 
though it were a river system, with its springs, brooks, 
and rivulets, or like the rootlets enlarging into the roots 
of a tree, it finally reaches the right auricle. 

230. The alternate contractions and relaxations of the 
auricles and ventricles cause the heart to roll somewhat, 
and to elongate, pushing its apex against the chest wall. 3 
These movements constitute the pulsations, or "throb- 
bing " of the heart. They are so constant that the organ 
seems never to have rest, but the alternate periods of 
relaxation, short as they are, afford in the aggregate very 
considerable rest to the busy muscles of the heart. 

231. The contraction of these muscles, those of the 
ventricles especially, and the closure of the valves of the 
heart, give rise to what are known as heart sounds, 
which can be heard by placing one's ear over the heart of 

1 Two from each lung. 

2 Sometimes called " the great systemic artery," as it distributes blood to a 
large part of the system. 

3 These contractions and dilatations are technically designated as "systole " 
and " diastole." 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 159 

another, and in contact with the chest, or by means of an 
instrument called the stethoscope. These sounds are 
termed the first and second sounds, and changes in their 
rhythm, intensity, or pitch are indications to the physician 
of the character of any disturbance or disease in the heart. 

232. The pulsations of the heart are involuntary. There- 
fore, influences which operate upon the nervous system 
operate also upon the heart. 1 Its movements are decreased 
in frequency by sorrow, depression of spirits, etc., and 
quickened by mental excitement, joy, anger, etc. ; hence 
the expressions, "one can hear his heart beat," or "his 
heart is in his throat," or " it beats like a trip-hammer." 
The temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, the quan- 
tity of food, the age, sex, muscular activity, and the posi- 
tion of the individual, also affect the rapidity of the heart's 
action. At birth the number of beats is normally about 
140 per minute, at the end of the first year 120, at the end 
of the second year 110 ; during middle life it varies from 
70 to 80, being about 10 more in women than men, and in 
old age is about 60. 2 

The normal frequency of the heart's action varies with 
the temperament, family tendency, and the individual's 
mode of living. Of Napoleon I. and the Duke of Well- 
ington it is said, the pulsations were but 40 per minute. 

1 The action of the heart is controlled in health by two sets of nerves, and 
so regulated that the exact quantity of blood required at any time is received 
into and sent out of the organ. The first set (called pneumogastrics) , " act as 
the reins act on a horse in the hands of a skilful driver," while the second 
(called sympathetic) accelerate the action of the heart. 

2 The pulsations are increased by heat and diminished by cold. In babies 
they are readily increased or diminished by apparently slight causes. Thus, 
after crying, the pulse (as the pulsation of the arteries is called), rises 10 to 
20 beats, and is lowered the same amount during sleep. After a meal the pulse 
of an adult has from 5 to 10 beats more per minute than before; 5 beats more 
when sitting than when lying down, and 10 beats more when standing than 
when sitting, and 10 to 50 or more beats when in motion than when still. 



160 THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

In some persons, especially those with excitable, nervous 
temperaments, they number 90 or even more. Very rapid 
action tends to exhaust the heart ; yet the vitality of the 
organ is remarkable. In warm-blooded animals and in 
man it is the last organ to cease giving signs of life, and 
even when it has ceased to beat, electricity has again 
aroused its action and restored life. 1 In cold-blooded 
animals, such as the frog and snake, whose heart-action is 
comparatively slow, the heart will continue to throb after 
the animal has been beheaded, and even after the heart 
itself has been removed from the body. 

233. The arteries 2, are a series of cylindrical, firm, but 
elastic canals, which commence with the aorta, and by 
divisions and subdivisions convey the blood to all the vas- 
cular parts of the body. The larger arteries are composed 
of three coats : first, a smooth, delicate, and slightly elas- 
tic inner wall, similar to, and continuous with, the endo- 
cardium, and the lining of the veins and the capillaries ; 
next, a middle coat composed of elastic and muscular 
tissue ; and lastly, a very strong outer coat, composed of 
fibrous and elastic tissue with some muscular fibres. 3 As 

1 The ancients regarded various organs of the body as seats of the emotions. 
The spleen was the seat of anger and melancholy, hence the term splenetic; 
while the heart was the seat of joy, love, harmony, and the like. The words, 
"courage," "cordiality," "heart-felt," "hearty," "heartiness," etc., have 
their derivation in this idea. 

2 So named from two Greek words meaning " receptacle of air," because the 
ancients believed that these blood-vessels contained air only, — probably 
because they generally found them empty in the dead body. Arteries do not 
collapse when cut as veins do. After death their contents are for the most 
part emptied into the veins and capillaries. A firm tube of rubber (whose walls 
keep the canal open, even when the tube is cut across) , will give a fair idea of 
what an artery is; while a tube, with thin, flexible walls, represents a vein. 

3 The elasticity of the larger arteries will be best appreciated in the aorta 
of an ox or sheep. Like a piece of india-rubber, it yields when stretched, and 
immediately thereafter recovers itself. The walls of the arteries are nourished 
by blood conveyed to them by little arteries called vasa vasorum. Correspond- 
ing vessels also supply the heart. 



THE CIRCULATION. 



BLOOD. — LYMPH. 



161 




the arteries become smaller the external coat disappears ; 

hence the very small arteries (arterioles) have but two 

coats. In the capillaries (which are 

continuous with the smaller arteries as 

well as with the commencing rootlets of 

the veins) the middle coat also disap- Wt^ 

pears, and the thin, delicate, circular 

wall that remains is well adapted for the 

transudation of gases and fluids. 



234. The smoothness of the lining wall 
prevents friction. The elasticity of the 
arteries permits them to yield without 
danger of bursting, as the blood is thrown 
into them with each stroke of the heart, 
and also enables them to accommodate 
themselves to the various movements of the body. 
Their contractility affords them the power of adapting 
themselves to the variable quantities of blood which they 
contain, and which must be supplied to the tissues as 
required. As the blood is sent into the large arteries 
from the heart, the flow is intermittent. The calibre of 
the arteries as they divide and sub-divide becomes smaller 
and smaller, but in the aggregate that calibre is greatty 
increased, and, owing to this and to their elasticity and 
contractility, as the blood is propelled omvards, the pulsa- 
tions in the arteries are less intermittent as the arteries 
become smaller, and finally, in the capillaries, the blood 
current is uniform and constant, but slow. 1 It thus 



Fig. 51. 
A portion of an artery. 
Enveloping it are lym- 
phatics and lymphatic 
glands. 



1 The motion of the hlood in the arteries may be illustrated by connecting a 
syringe, representing the left ventricle, with a large rubber tube, representing 
the aorta, which is connected with various tubes of gradually decreasing size, 
representing the subdividing arteries and the capillaries. The water is injected 
into the large tube in an intermittent and forcible current, which abates in the 
smaller tubes and becomes continuous in the smallest. 



162 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 



becomes well adapted to furnish to each cell its appro- 
priate nourishment, and to abstract from each its waste 
products. 1 

235. The pulsations of the aorta and its branches 
constitute the pulse or wave in the arteries. This is 
usually felt at the wrist, but may be felt over any artery 
which is located near the surface, as in the arteries of the 
upper lip, the chin, temples, elbows, and inner side of the 
ankles. To determine the character of the pulse more 
accurately than by the sense of touch alone, an ingenious 
registering instrument called the sphygmograph may be 
attached to the forearm, and by means of a lever lightly 
resting on the pulse, there will be registered with a pencil 




Fig. 52. 
Portions of four traces taken by the sphygmograph in different conditions of the pulse. 

on prepared paper the character of the pulsations. The 
character of the pulse is a fair indication of the action and 
strength of the heart, and is modified or altered by the 
same means that affect the action of the heart. 

236. The capillaries permeate the vascular organs in 
meshes of network variously arranged, and bring the 
blood into close contact with the tissues. 2 In reference 
to their function, Dalton says, "The nutritious ingredi- 
ents of the blood transude through their walls, and are 
appropriated by the tissues beyond. In the glandular 
organs they supply the substance requisite for secretion ; 
in the villi of the intestine they take up the elements of 

1 It is estimated that the blood flows 360 times faster in the aorta than in 
the capillaries. 

2 Capillaries are generally about 30V0 °f an mcn m diameter. 



THE CIECULATIOX. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 



163 



the digested food ; in the lungs they absorb oxygen and 
exhale carbonic acid ; in the kidneys they discharge the 
products of destructive assimilation collected from other 
parts. The capillary circulation thus furnishes directly or 
indirectly the materials for the growth and renovation of 




Fig. 53. 
Injected cross-section of a lobule of the liver, showing the capillary network 
between the portal and hepatic veins. — 1, section of intraA6bu\a.r vein ; 
2, its branches collecting blood from the capillaries; 3, wrfer-lobular branches 
of the portal vein connecting with the capillary network, and supplying the 
lobule with blood for its nourishment. — Magnified 60 diameters. 

the entire body." This circulation is ordinarily studied 
in a tissue which is transparent and vascular, such as the 
web of a frog's foot, or of a bat's wing, and is an exceed- 
ingly beautiful and interesting sight. 1 Tissues such as 

1 " We see the great arterial rivers, in which the blood flows with wonderful 
rapidity, branching and subdividing until the circulating fluid is brought to 
the network of fine capillaries, where the corpuscles dart along one by one. 
The blood is then collected by the veins and carried in great currents to the 
heart. This exhibition to the student of Nature is of inexpressible grandeur; 
and our admiration is not diminished when we come to study the phenomena 
in detail. ... It can be seen how the arterioles regulate the supply of blood 
to the tissues; how the blood distributes itself by the capillaries; and finally, 
having performed its office, how it is collected and carried off by the veins." — 
Text-book of Physiology. Flint. 



164 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 



cartilage, nails, and hair, which have no blood-vessels, are 
nourished by imbibition. 1 



*-/> 







Fig. 54. 

A diagram of the capillary circulation, with arteries in white, veins in black. — 
T, trachea, arrows representing incoming and outgoing air ; D, the diaphragm ; 
A, artery (the aorta) ; V, vein; 1, capillary circulation of head; 2, vessels of 
upper extremities; 3, capillaries of the lungs; 4, of the stomach; 5, of the 
liver; 6, of the spleen; 7, of the pancreas; 8, of a portion of small intestine; 
9, of the kidneys; 10, vessels of lower extremities. 



1 That is, " drinking in," or " absorption." 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 165 

237. The capillaries having very thin and somewhat 
elastic walls, readily vary in size, at different times, in 
response to any exciting cause. They are largest, when a 
part to which they are distributed is functionally active. 
Emotion, and exposure to warmth, dilate the small arteries 
by relaxing their muscular fibres ; and more blood at such 
times fills the capillaries in connection with them, so that 
the parts to which they are distributed "blush," or become 
ruddy. On the other hand, pallor is produced by con- 
tinued cold, anger, fear, etc., which cause the muscles to 
contract, and the amount of blood in the small arteries 
and capillaries to be diminished. 1 So numerous are the 
capillaries that their entire capacity is said to be "from 
five hundred to eight hundred times that of the arteries." 
Their extensive distribution may be appreciated when we 
consider that the slightest cut upon any part of the skin 
or mucous membrane, which is sufficient to induce bleed- 
ing, must cut across many capillaries. They are most 
numerous wherever the nutritive processes are most active, 
as in the lungs and glands, and in the mucous membrane 
of the small intestine, and, during the functional activity 
of these parts, may be said to bathe them in blood. 

238. After the blood has parted with nutriment to the 
tissues, and absorbed waste products from them, it passes on 
from the capillaries into larger channels called small veins 
or veinlets, and then into still larger ones known as veins. 2 

1 Blood carried to a part for a length of time, in larger quantity than is 
necessary for its nourishment, is liable to cause inflammation and even death 
of the part. When the supply of blood is for a lengthened period much 
smaller than is demanded, failure in nutrition and even death of the part may 
result; or if a part has been long contracted, as by frost-bite, and blood is too 
suddenly brought into it, as by heat, inflammation and death of the part may 
ensue. 

2 Generally, in the case of large blood-vessels, arteries and veins (and some- 
times nerves) accompany each other in one common sheath. 



166 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 



Other waste products not so taken up are carried into the 
blood by another set of vessels, called the lymphatics, to 
be hereafter described. 

Veins, like arteries, are composed of three coats, but 
they contain a smaller quantity of muscular and elastic 
fibres, and a larger proportion of firm connective tissue. 
They are consequently less elastic and contractile, more 
flaccid and compressible, but "have 
equal if not superior capacity for resist- 
ance to pressure." They are further- 
more distinguished in the limbs and 
external parts of the head and neck, by 
being provided with valves so arranged 
that their closure prevents a backward 
flow of blood. The position of these 
valves may be seen in the little promi- 
nences that result in the course of the 
superficial veins if we tie a cord around 
the wrist or arm. 




Fig. 55. 
A portion of a vein, with 
its branches laid open, 
showing the valves. 



239. The capacity of the venous system is greater than 
that of the arterial, owing to its numerous intercommuni- 
cations. If a blockage occurs in a vein, the blood current 
can be more readily diverted therefore into one or more 
branches than is the case Avith the arteries, but the 
encircling of an entire limb with a tight band would 
obstruct the circulation in all the vessels of that region, 
and induce swelling below the band. 



240. The force and rapidity of the circulation are very 
great, but differ widely in the various sets of vessels and 
in the different organs, whether at rest or during func- 
tional activity ; but the time required for the passage of 
the blood from the heart to the vascular tissues and back is. 



THE CIRCULATIOX. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 167 

said by Dalton to be " not far from twenty seconds." 1 The 
flow of blood from the heart into the arteries, and through 
the capillaries, is effected by the powerful contractions of 
the heart aided by the contractility and elasticity of the 
arteries, and in the case of the capillaries, also by the 
elasticity of the surrounding tissues. So great is the force 
exerted, that if an artery be cut across, the blood spirts to 
a distance of several feet. 

In health, both arteries and veins readily withstand the 
force of the circulation, but, when weakened by age, injury, 
or disease, they may burst under unusual exertion, such as 
fast walking or running, the lifting of heavy weights, or 
even by a sudden change of position, as in the quick rising 
from a recumbent posture. If the vessels of the brain give 
way, paralysis or death may occur from the pressure of the 
escaped blood upon the brain. This condition is known 
as apoplexy. So rapid is the circulation that, on looking 
at the flow of blood in the web of a frog's foot for the first 
time, it is difficult even to see the blood globules. 

241. The flow of blood through the veins is more rapid 
than that through the capillaries, but considerably slower 
than the arterial current. It is effected by the pressure 
from the capillary circulation, by the contraction of the 
voluntary muscles through which the veins pass, and by 
the act of inspiration, whereby the chest is expanded. 
This expansion not only tends to draw air into the lungs, 
but also blood from the veins. 2 

1 Dalton estimates that the average rapidity of an arterial current is 12 
inches per second, of a venous current 8 inches per second, and the rate 
through the capillaries is rather less than 2V of an inch per second. 

2 If a vein, especially in the lower part of the neck, he wounded, and con- 
siderable air enters the blood, death is likely to result. " The air finds its way 
to the right ventricle, is mixed with the blood in the form of minute bubbles, 
and is carried into the pulmonary artery ; once in this vessel it is impossible 
for it to pass through the capillaries of the lungs, and death by suffocation 
is the inevitable result." — Flint. 



168 THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

242. The blood is eminently the " vital fluid," for it is 
that constituent of the body which either directly or indi- 
rectly affords nourishment and life to all the other con- 
stituents, whether solid or fluid. If from any cause much 
blood is lost, great weakness follows, and if the flow is not 
checked, death results. 1 On the other hand, if fresh blood 
from a living person or animal be injected into the veins 
of an individual much prostrated, or even apparently dead, 
especially if his condition be the result of loss of blood, 
he often may be revived. This operation is known as the 
transfusion of blood. 2 

243. To the eye the blood seems to be merely a homo- 
geneous red, scarlet, or dark-blue liquid, according as it is 
drawn from the capillaries, arteries, or veins. It has a salty 
taste, and a very small quantity of it is capable of stain- 
ing a large amount of water. As shown by a microscopic 
examination, it consists of two portions, the liquor san- 
guinis or plasma, and the globules. The first is an alka- 
line, transparent, and nearly colorless fluid, in which the 
blood globules, corpuscles, cells, or disks (as they are 
variously called), swim. It is composed of water and 

1 From 1545 to 1586 several persons described portions of the circulatory 
apparatus, and their function. In 1C02 Harvey began his investigations upon 
living animals, and in 1616 discovered the circulation of the blood. His 
description of the movements of the heart are forcible, clear, and accurate. 
Of the heart, he says "by an admirable adjustment all the internal surfaces 
are drawn together, as if with cords, and so is the charge of blood expelled 
with force." Like other investigators in the same field, Harvey was subjected 
to much persecution. 

2 The operation originated in the 17th century, and much was expected 
from its use; some believing that old people could be rejuvenated by using the 
blood of the young; but, after a number of deaths had resulted, it fell into dis- 
repute. The operation has been revived within the last few years, and, owing 
to improved surgical appliances, and to a better knowledge of the subject, 
excellent results have been obtained ; three or four ounces only of blood have 
been found to be sufficient at any one time. Warm milk of cows has been 
successfully used instead of blood. 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 169 

fatty matters, and of albuminous matters and salts in 
solution, with some crystallizable substances of organic 
origin, and forms " about 60 per cent by volume of the 
entire mass " of the blood. 1 

244. Blood globules are of two kinds, the red and the 
white. The red are smaller than the white (-g-gVo of an 
inch in diameter), and much more numerous, there being 
about 300 to every white corpuscle. So numerous are 
they, that in every direction, in the thinest film of blood 
under the microscope, they touch or even overlap each 




ws 



Fig. 56. 



Blood globules. — M, of man; F, of the frog; W S, of the water salamander; 
S, of a shark; D, of the dove; C, of the camel. 

other, and it is evident that the red color is due to 
the globules en masse, for, if viewed separately by trans- 
mitted light, they are of a light amber color. It has 
been estimated that there are about five million red 
corpuscles in a very small drop (a cubic millimetre) of 
blood. In form they are circular, with flattened sides, 
and under the microscope are seen to arrange themselves 

1 The albuminous matters are albumen, paraglobuline, and fibrinogen. " The 
salts are principally sodium and potassium chlorides, phosphates, and sulph- 
ates, together with lime and magnesium phosphates." 



170 THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

in rows, adhering together side by side like a roll of coins. 
They are of nearly fluid consistency and very elastic, and 
are easily bent or distorted, to enable them to pass through 
the smallest blood-vessels. Their most important ingre- 
dient is hemoglobine. 1 This substance has a strong affinity 
for oxygen, 2 and unites with it; but the tissues which 
have a stronger affinity absorb a large part of the oxygen 
in combination with the coloring matter, and replace it 
with carbonic acid. It is on account, therefore, of the 
life-giving oxygen thus carried by the red globules, that 
they are sometimes spoken of as " little boats laden with 
precious freight," which are in health dispatched at the 
right time, to the right place, in the right quantity. 

The red globules of the blood of all vertebrate animals 
contain a coloring matter similar to, if not identical with, 
that of man, but differ from the globules of human blood 
as to form, size, and structure. 3 The detection of this dif- 
ference is sometimes of importance in courts of law in the 
decision of questions relating to the stains upon murder- 
ous weapons, or upon garments, floors, etc. 

245. The white globules are supposed to change ultim- 
ately into red ones. They are larger than the latter (about 
2-5V0 of an inch in diameter), have a spherical form, and 
adhere more readily than do the red globules to surfaces 

1 " The ultimate elements of hemoglobine are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sul- 
phur, and iron; the last of these probably being the cause of the red color." — 
Quain's Diet, of Medicine. 

2 This gas chiefly finds its way into the blood through the air breathed in 
by the lungs. 

3 In the warm-blooded quadrupeds the structure is the same as in man. The 
globules have the same disk-like shape, except in the camel family, where the 
disks are oval. The smallest globules are those of the Java musk deer; the 
largest, those of the elephant; though their size does not always correspond 
with that of the animal. In birds, reptiles, and fishes, with but few excep- 
tions, they are oval and have a nucleus. The coloring matter of blood in sus- 
pected stains, is frequently ascertained by a spectroscopic examination. 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 171 

with which they may come in contact. 1 Characteristic of 
the white globules are what is known as the "amoeboid 
movements,"' so named from their resemblance to those of 
the Amoeba, an animalcule living in fresh-water ponds or 
ditches. These movements consist in the alternate protru- 
sion and retraction of various portions of the globules. 
By this mechanism the white globules move from place to 
place when the blood current is considerably slackened, and 
also " migrate," i.e., escape from the capillaries into the 
surrounding tissues. Powers says of this " migration " 
or diapedesis, as it is technically called, '" under certain 
circumstances, both white and red corpuscles may escape 
from the vessels, and pass or wander into the adjoining 
lymphatics. The escape of the white corpuscles appears 
to occur normally, whilst the escape of the red only occurs 
when the pressure of the blood against the walls of the 
capillaries is much increased, or when there is retardation 
of the blood current, as in inflammation. In the case of 
the white corpuscles, the attraction between the corpuscle 
and the capillary wall seems to be increased, the corpuscle 
begins to bore its way through the wall, assumes an hour- 
glass form, part being within and part without the lumen 
of the vessel, and it hnally escapes altogether into the 
adjoining tissues." How far the nutritive processes are 
influenced by the migration of blood corpuscles is not 
definitely known. 2 

246. Blood exposed to atmospheric air coagulates or 
clots spontaneously. This property is peculiar to blood. 
If it were not for this coagulation we should be liable to 

1 The term leucocytes is applied sometimes to the white corpuscles. These 
corpuscles are not peculiar to blood, but are found in lymph, chyle, and other 
fluids. 

2 Diapedesis was first described about 1846, but has been fully studied only 
within the last few years. 



172 THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

bleed to death from even a slight cut. 1 In most of the 
warm-blooded animals coagulation is more prompt and 
thorough than in man, so that there may be extensive 
injury to blood-vessels without fatal results to the helpless 
animals. But man is able, by pressure for a time upon a 
bleeding vessel, or by tying the two cut ends (z.e., ligatur- 
ing) to cause the coagulation, and so lesseu the danger 
from extensive hemorrhage. . Seldom does the blood clot 
in the body, unless the circulation is impeded or arrested, 
and the inner coat of a vessel is roughened by disease, or 
otherwise injured. A clot formed in a vessel may inter- 
rupt the blood supply to a part of the body, and cause the 
death of that part, or it may be sent in the blood current 
to the brain, and cause paralysis of a portion of the body, 
or death of the entire body. A " bruise-spot " is the dis- 
coloration produced by blood escaping from injured capil- 
laries, and its coagulation on or under the skin. The rap- 
idity with which it naturally disappears depends upon the 
severity of the injury, the relative thickness of the skin, 
the vascularity of the part injured, and upon the health of 
the individual. When blood is poor and thin, as in scurvy 
and other blood diseases, it flows readily from wounds, 
or from the impoverished tissues, producing dangerous 
hemorrhages and many "bruised spots." The drawing 
of a tooth, or a pin's scratch in such persons, is liable to 
result in severe bleeding. 

1 The clotting of blood may be studied in animal's blood contained in a 
deep glass dish. The upper portion begins to harden first, and after a time the 
whole mass is semi-solid. Later on the clot forms and lies in the centre of a 
light yellow fluid. This firm clot contains globules, fibrin, and most of the 
coloring matter of the blood, while the fluid known as " serum " contains 
water, salts, and a little coloring matter. Fibrin formed from the fibrinogen 
of the blood may be seen in the fibrous filaments remaining after thoroughly 
washing a clot of blood, or in the fine threads which cling to a bundle of twigs, 
witb which fresh blood has been thoroughly beaten for a time. Such blood 
remains uncoagulable, and is said to be defibrinated. 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 173 

247. The entire quantity of blood of an individual is 
about ten per cent of his bodily weight. Of this quantity 
about one-fourth is distributed to the heart, lungs, large 
arteries, and veins, one-fourth to the liver, one-fourth to 
the muscles, and the remaining fourth to the remaining 
organs and tissues. The brain receives one-fifth of the 
entire quantity of blood. 

248. Probably there is more variation in individuals 
as to the quality of blood than there is as to the quantity. 
The old expressions, "rich blood," "poor blood," "blood 
will tell," etc., have much of truth in them in a physiolog- 
ical sense, for so-called " blood diseases " are often handed 
down from one generation to another, and blood may 
become so poor (thin and watery) from inattention to 
hygienic requirements that health is impossible. 1 On the 
other hand, pallor of countenance will disappear, and 
strength and energy return to the feeble when the poor 
blood has been enriched by good food, and air, and by 
warmth, cleanliness, and other hygienic measures. 

249. In addition to the blood there is another fluid 
widely distributed throughout the body. This is the 
lymph, a liquid closely resembling in composition the 
blood plasma, and containing rounded corpuscles similar 
in appearance to the white globules of the blood, which 
are called " lymph globules." The lymph represents 
some of the ingredients of the blood which have traversed 
the walls of the blood-vessels and some of the products of 
disintegration, which, after renovation in the lymphatic 
system, enter the blood and are again serviceable in the 

1 Living for a long time in an unhealthy atmosphere impoverishes the 
blood. Sometimes poor blood, as seen escaping from an injured vessel, is of a 
pale yellow color; not only are the red globules deficient in oxygen, but their 
number is materially decreased. 



174 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 



economy. The thin, delicate vessels in which the lymph 
currents move are the lymphatics. 1 These vessels (so fine 
that they cannot be readily seen until injected with quick- 
silver) begin as networks, or as tubes with free blind 




#1 






V \( 



Fig. 57. 
Lymphatic vessels of a papilla of the palm of the hand, greatly magnified. 

extremities, in the interspaces of the connective tissue, or 
of the capillary blood-vessels. 2 They are most abundant 
in organs well supplied with blood-vessels, such as the 



1 About the year 1600 the thoracic duct was discovered. In 1622 the lacteals, 
hut until 1649 they were supposed to empty into the liver; in that year (1649) 
the receptacle for chyle was discovered, and the fact that chyle was carried into 
it, and from thence into the venous system. It was not until 1650 that the 
other absorbent vessels, i.e., lymphatics, were discovered, first in the liver, 
and then in the other parts of the body. 

2 It is now supposed that certain serous cavities, such as the pleural and 
peritoneal, which were formerly considered as dosed cavities, communicate by 
small openings with the lymphatics. 



THE CIRCULATION. 



BLOOD. 



LYMPH. 



175 



glandular organs, the mucous membrane, and the skin, — 
particularly that of the soles of the feet and the palms of 
the hands, — and are absent in the non-vascular tissues. 1 

250. The lymphatic capillaries, after leaving the vari- 
ous tissues, converge, the tubes becoming larger as they 
approach the heart. Those from the right side of the 
head and neck, and the right upper 
extremity, form the right lymphatic 
duct, which opens into the venous 
system at the junction of the right 
subclavian vein with the right inter- 
nal jugular vein. The lymphatics of 
the lower extremities enter the abdom- 
inal cavity, and with the abdominal 
lymphatics (including the lacteals, 
with their contents the chyle), form 
the commencement of the thoracic 
duct. At the base of the neck, 
before this duct empties into the left 
subclavian vein, at its junction with 
the left internal jugular, it is joined 
by the lymphatics from the left side 
of the head and neck, and the left 
upper extremity. Thus the lymph is 
mingled with the venous blood before 
its arrival at the right side of the 
heart. 2 




251. In the course of the lym- 
phatics everywhere in the body are 



Fig. 58. 
Superficial lymphatics of the 
hand and forearm. — G, 
lymphatic gland. 



1 Those instances related of blood-poisoning, by mere contact of poisonous 
material with the tender parts of the skin or mucous membrane, are probably 
due to the absorption of the poison by the lymphatics. 

2 According to Dalton, about six pounds of lymph {i.e. including chyle) is 
poured into the blood every 24' hours. 



176 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. 



LYMPH. 



numerous glands, called lymphatic glands. 1 Their func- 
tion, it is supposed, is a renovating or elaborating one. 
In them the lymph globules are believed chiefly to origi- 
nate. Certain it is, that when in large numbers they are 



LymR 



rij - 

RSV- 



LymL 







Lym L Ex 



Fig. 59. — Diagram. 

Lym R, lymphatics of right side of head and neck ; Lym L, lymphatics of left- 
side of head and neck; RIJ, right internal jugular vein; RSV, right sub- 
clavian vein; LSV, left subclavian vein ; TD, thoracic duct; RC, receptacle 
of the chyle ; Lac, lacteals ; Lym L Ex, lymphatics of lower extremities. 



1 About 700. These glands are not infrequently enlarged; for instance, 
upon the head, or in the neck, from some irritation of the skin, from a sore 



throat, etc., and can then be readily felt, 



THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 177 

hardened or otherwise altered, health fails, and the person 
grows thin, though the food may be suitable in quality 
and abundant in quantity. 1 

252. Intimately connected with the circulation of blood 
and the conveyance of lymph are the operations of secre- 
tion, transudation, and absorption, which, form a large part 
of the processes of nutrition. Nutritive fluids and gases 
enter the blood, and by exosmosis and endosmosis, and by 
re-absorption, produce the secretions of the various organs, 
and the materials of the tissues. The " natural constitu- 
tion of the parts, though constantly changing, is maintained 
in its normal condition, through the movement and reno- 
vation of the circulating fluids." 



QUESTIONS. 

1. State what is meant by the circulation, and what is its object. 

2. What are the organs of circulation ? 

3. What is the chief organ, and where is it situated? 

4. Name and describe in what the heart is enveloped, and its office. 

5. With what is the interior of the heart lined ? 

6. What are the divisions of the heart, their location and object ? 

7. How does the blood pass from the auricles to the ventricles ? 

8. What keeps it from returning from the ventricles to the auricles? 

9. What other valves are there in the circulation, and where ? 

10. By which side and parts of the heart is pure blood transmitted ? 

11. Which cavities of the heart are strongest? 

12. Describe the circulation of the blood. 

13. Does the heart, like other muscles, have rest? 

14. What is the use of the stethoscope ? 

15. How are the movements of the heart effected ? How affected? 



1 The spleen, thymus gland (a gland found in children upon the front of 
the neck), and other ductless glands, in connection with the hlood-vessels, 
elaborate in a similar manner formative constituents of the blood. When 
these glands are diseased, the blood is likely to be more or less white and 
watery. 



178 THE CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

16. "What can you say as to its vitality? 

17. Describe the arteries and their function. 

18. How is the intermittent motion of the blood stopped, and where, 

and why? 

10. What is the pulse and its rate? 

20. What is the sphymograph ? 

21. What causes blushing and pallor? Apoplexy? 

22. Describe the capillaries. 

23. How are the nails, cartilage, etc., nourished? 

24. Describe the veins. 

25. By what is the circulation aided? 

26. What of the rapidity of the circulation ? 

27. Does the blood flow to or from the heart in the arteries? In the 

veins ? 

28. Where then would you compress a bleeding artery to stop its flow ? 

Where a vein ? 

29. What facts show the importance of blood ? 

30. Of what is blood composed ? 

31. How does it appear under the microscope? 

32. What is the function of the red corpuscles ? 

33. What is the coagulation of the blood, and to what is it due, and 

of what use is it ? 

34. When does blood clot in the blood-vessels ? 

35. What is paralysis ? A bruise ? A hemorrhage ? 

36. What proportion in weight of the body is blood? 

37. What effect has the quality of the blood upon the general health ? 

38. Describe lymph and the lymphatics. 

39. Where do they begin, and where are they most abundant ? 

40. Where do they empty? 

41. What are the lymphatic glands ? 

42. What processes of nutrition are intimately connected with the 

circulation of blood and lymph ? 



ANALYSIS. 



179 



ANALYSIS OF THE ELEVENTH CHAPTER. 



THE CIRCULATION. 



I. Organs « 



Structure. 
How enclosed. 
How lined. 

f Heart -{ Q av ^j es (Auricles, right and left. 

\ Ventricles, right and left. 
Movements. 
^ Sounds. 

I 1 Structure and functions. 

I Blood-vessels . . «j Capillaries > Rapidity and force of 
[Veins J circulation in. 



II. Blood 



" Value. 

Composition. 

Varieties. 

Coagulation. 

Quantity. 
L Quality. 






LYMPH. 

1. Conveyed, in lymphatics, — Lymph canals and lacteals. 

2. Elaborated in lymphatic glands, — Number and location, 

3. Composition and function. 



CHAPTER XII. 
RESPIRATION. -ANIMAL HEAT. 

253. Blood, to nourish the tissues effectually, must con- 
tain oxygen. This is supplied by the atmosphere and by 
various foods, the largest amount being furnished by the 
air which we breathe. Simultaneously with the absorption 
of oxygen, the blood parts with its carbonic acid, and 
becomes pure. This process is effected by respiration or 
breathing. The organs of respiration comprise the lungs 
and the air passages leading to them. The lungs are two 
in number, and are located in the thoracic cavity, one 
on each side of the median line, and separated from each 
other by the heart and its great blood-vessels, and by the 
larger air-tubes. (Fig. 14.) Each lung is cone-like in 
shape, and extends upwards to the lower border of the neck. 
Its broadened lower surface is concave in form, and rests 
upon the upper convex surface of the diaphragm. The 
remaining surfaces of the lungs are convex in form, and 
fit into the concave interior of the chest walls. 

254. Free movements of the lungs are absolutely neces- 
sary for the full performance of their functions, and are 
beautifully provided for by their structure and coverings, 
and by the arrangement and mobility of the chest walls. 
Covering each lung, except where the large blood-vessels 
and air-tubes enter, is a strong but delicately constructed, 
closed sac, similar to the pericardium, known as the pleu- 
ral sac. These sacs are together known as the pleura, and 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 181 

the space enclosed by each as the pleural cavity} One 
wall of each sac is closely adherent to the lnng, and the 
other to the concave inner wall of the chest. (Fig. 64.) 
The lining, or inner surface of each sac secretes in health 
just enough lubricating fluid to allow the inner surfaces 
of the walls of the sac to glide readily upon each other in 
the process of breathing. 2 

255. The lung substance, like a sponge, is elastic, and 
filled with enclosures containing air. If a piece of the 
healthy lung of an ox or sheep be pressed between the 
fingers, it yields a peculiar crackling, which is due to 
the partial dislodgement of air. If the piece be tightly 
squeezed, or even bruised between heavy rollers, sufficient 
air will still be remaining in it to cause it to float in water. 
In fact, the lungs are the only organs in the body that will 
float. 

256. The air passages not only afford transit for the 
air, but they serve also to warm, cleanse, and moisten it 
on its passage to the lungs. They are the interior of the 
nose, the mouth, pharynx, larynx, windpipe or trachea, 
and the bronchial tubes. 

257. Though air enters the mouth to a greater or less 
extent, the nostrils are the proper channels of respiration. 
The nose is especially fitted to warm, cleanse, and moisten 
the inhaled air. It is lined by mucous membrane, and 
is divided by a middle wall of cartilage and bone into sep- 
arate nostrils, in each of which are three thin, projecting 
plates of bone, one above the other. These curve down- 

1 The word pleura is derived from the Greek, and means "rih" or "side." 

2 When the gliding motions are hindered hy the more or less intimate adhe- 
sion of the secreting surfaces of a pleural sac, as in pleurisy, anything more 
than the quietest breathing is attended with acute pain. 



182 



RESPIRATION. 



ANIMAL HEAT. 



wards, and are covered by mucous membrane. 1 The air, 
therefore, in its passage through the nostrils, comes by a 
circuitous route into contact with a large extent of moist 
and warm mucous membrane. The membrane is kept 
moist by the secretions of its mucous glands, and warm by 
being richly supplied with blood. 2 In addition to these 
arrangements for warming the air, retarding its passage, 
and ridding it of dust, there are hairs just within the 
nostrils, and ciliated cells upon a portion of the sur- 
face of the mucous membrane of the nose. Similar cells 
are also found upon the posterior sur- 
face of the soft palate, in the windpipe, 
and other portions of the air passages. 
They are called ciliated because from 
them project ciliae, or hair-like, micro- 
scopical processes or filaments. These 
processes are constantly' vibrating, but 
with greater force, in opposition to the 
Diagram of a vertical entering current of air, or from within 

section of the bronchial *r . 

mucous membrane.— i, outward, their united movement some- 

ciliated epithelial cells; , 

2, ciliae ; 3, nuclei ; 4, what resembling that of a miniature 

new cells ; 5, basement ° 

membrane ; 6, fibrous field f wheat when moved bv the wind. 

layer. J 

The natural effect of such a moist and 
beautifully contrived organism, opposing itself to the en- 
tering air current, is to catch from it foreign particles 
which may be intermingled with it, and gradually carry 
them, by an unceasing counter movement, out of the air 
passages. 

258. On the other hand, when we breathe through the 
mouth, foreign particles are forced into the throat and 




1 These bones are known as the "turbinated" bones, from their fancied 
resemblance to tops. 

2 It is said that the nasal cavities are a degree or two warmer than the cav- 
ity of the mouth. 



RESPIRATION. — AXIMAL HEAT. 183 

lungs, and act as irritants, the mouth and throat become 
dry, and sufficient time is not taken for the mastication of 
food, so imperative is the necessity for breathing. 1 In the 
habitual mouth breather, the nasal mucous membrane, being 
insufficiently used, dries and shrinks, causing discomfort. 
The efforts that are necessary to breathe with comfort after 
a while result in more or less lasting unpleasant expres- 
sions of the face ; 2 the mucous membrane is liable to become 
more or less inflamed, and thus to obstruct the nasal pas- 
sages ; hearing is interfered with by partial or entire closure 
of the Eustachian tubes, whose function it is to convey air 
to the organs of hearing ; the voice loses its resonance, and 
the lungs are imperfectly developed. Sometimes the ton- 
sils, or almond-shaped glands, located one on each side of 
the throat, enlarge, and obstruct the free movement of air 
through the nasal cavities and Eustachian tubes. (Fig. 33.) 

1 Healthy babies breathe, for the larger part of the time, through the nose, 
with the mouth shut; and, if a baby is in the habit of breathing with the mouth 
open, there is reason to suspect the presence of enlarged tonsils, or some dis- 
ease of the nostrils. A Scotch physician, fully appreciating the importance of 
proper breathing, has written a valuable medical paper, entitled " Shut your 
mouth and save your life." We are told that some Indian tribes understand 
the importance of breathiDg through the nose, and that the squaw, before retir- 
ing for the night, sees that the mouth of her babe is shut. Some of the most 
careful trainers of pedestrians insist that walking and running should be, as 
far as possible, with the mouth closed. 

2 ' ' Air inspired through the nose passes through a refining process, which 
prepares it for the lungs very much as mastication prepares food for the stom- 
ach. If food is improperly masticated, the stomach suffers. If air is improp- 
erly refined, the air passages suffer. The nose and not the mouth was designed 
as the gateway to the lungs. . . . The mouth may be closed on going to sleep, 
opened while sleeping, and when consciousness arrives, is closed again, and so 
many are ignorant of the fact that they ever breathe through the mouth. If 
these people are questioned closely, the fact will be elicited that the mouth and 
throat are always dry in the mornings, and that it may be several hours before 
this condition wears away. . . . When dryness of the throat is caused by 
sleeping with the mouth open, if the nasal passages are found to be sufficiently 
large to supply the lungs with air, the mouth should be kept closed by wearing 
a skull-cap with strings or straps fastened to its sides, which, being tied or 
buckled under the chin, hold the jaws together." — Thomas R. French, M.D. 



184 RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 

If, as is sometimes the case with babies and young chil- 
dren, whose bones are deficient in mineral ingredients, 
the blockage is long continued, there results, from the re- 
peated violent efforts in breathing made necessary, a more 
or less permanent sinking in of the lateral chest walls, thus 
causing an unnatural protrusion in front. This condition 
is popularly known as the "pigeon breast." 

259. The pharynx (before described in connection with 
the alimentary canal) is a passage for air as well as food, 
though the organs of respiration are sometimes said to 
begin with the larynx, or voice box. This latter organ is 
located in front of and adjoining the upper end of the 
oesophagus. (Fig. 33.) It is composed of several carti- 
lages controlled by muscles, and is so arranged as to form 
a kind of box. About the middle of it is a dilatable open- 
ing called the glottis, through which respiration is per- 
formed, and by means of which articulate sounds are 
produced. 

260. The trachea is a membranous and somewhat elas- 
tic tube, about an inch in diameter, and four and a half 
inches in length, which extends downwards from the lar- 
ynx. About oj)posite the middle of the third dorsal ver- 
tebra it divides into smaller tubes, called the right and 
left bronchial tubes, which enter the lungs. These in turn 
divide and subdivide like the branches and twigs of a tree, 
becoming smaller and smaller, until they finally end in 
" lobules," i.e., oval sacs or bags. 

The walls of the trachea are held apart by a series of 
imbedded cartilages, called rings, placed at nearly equal 
distances from each other. These rings are also found in 
the larger bronchial tubes. They are not complete rings, 
however, for they do not meet posteriorly, an arrange- 
ment which gives them elasticity and pliancy, and allows 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 



185 



the oesophagus to expand readily in swallowing. These 
rings prevent the collapse of the walls of the trachea and 
bronchial tubes in respiration. 




Fig. 61. 
Lungs in outline, showing relations of the larynx, trachea, and the bronchial tubes 
and their branches. — 1, thyroid cartilage of the larynx; 2, cricoid cartilage; 
3, trachea; 4, its point of bifurcation; 5, l-ight bronchial tube; 6, left bron- 
chial tube. 



261. The smallest air-tubes, or bronchioles, have deli- 
cate, elastic, membraneous walls, without cartilages. The 
lobules in which they end are divided into secondary 



186 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 



compartments by thin partitions projecting from their 

inner surfaces. Each compartment or pulmonary vesi- 

ccu cle, as it is technically called, is 

^pc^ only about one seventy-fifth of an 

inch in diameter, and its walls are 

very thin, elastic, and distensible. 





Fig. 62. 
Ultimate bronchial tubes and their lobules. 



Fig. 63. 
Lobules laid open. 



Covering the lobules, and dipping down between the 
adjoining walls of the air vesicles, is the network of capil- 
lary blood-vessels referred to in the last chapter. The 
convoluted arrangement of the walls of the lobules affords 
an extensive surface of very delicate membrane for the 
aeration of blood, — a surface much greater than that of the 
entire exterior of the body. 1 

262. The process of respiration consists of inspiration, 
or breathing in, and expiration, or breathing out. In in- 
spiration the glottis is more or less widely opened, the 
chest walls are drawn outward and upward by muscles 
overlying the chest, and by muscular fibres between the 



1 It is estimated that the extent of surface of all the vesicles is about 1400 
square feet, and that " in the course of twenty-four hours about 20,000 litres 
(35,000 pints) of blood traverse the capillaries, the blood corpuscles passing in 
single file, and being exposed to air on both surfaces." 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 



187 



ribs, 1 and the diaphragm is caused to descend by the 
contraction of its muscles. The thorax is thus dilated, 
and, in consequence, the elastic air vesicles are tilled with 
air forcibly sucked in, as it were, somewhat as air is drawn 
into a syringe. The normal enlargement of the thorax is 
in three directions ; viz., vertical, from side to side, and 
from before backward. The first — that clue to the descent 



PLS 




PLS 



Fig. 64. 
Diagram. Lungs in inspiration and expiration. — 1, lungs contracted in expiration , 
2, lungs expanded in inspiration ; T, trachea; CW, chest walls; L, the lung 
substance; PLS, pleural sacs (the walls separated) ; D, the diaphragm. 

of the diaphragm — is the greatest, and is especially marked 
in young children. The enlargements from side to side, 
and from before backward, are most marked in the lower 
part of the chest of the adult male, and in the upper part of 
the chest of the adult female. These methods of enlarge- 
ment constitute what are called " types of respiration." 2 

1 There are two sets of muscles between the ribs ; viz., the internal and 
external intercostal muscles. The first, by contraction, assist in pulling the ribs 
down ; the second serve to pull them up. 

2 The vertical breathing, in which the diaphragm descends, and the abdom- 
inal walls and contents are pushed forward, is the abdominal type. The side- 
to-side enlargement is the inferior costal, and the from-before-backward en- 
largement is the superior costal or pectoral type. 



188 RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 

263. Expiration immediately follows inspiration, is a 
passive movement, and consists in the gentle expulsion of 
the air outward through the air passages by the elastic 
recoil of the respiratory apparatus. 1 After each expira- 
tion there is a short period of rest. 2 When more than 
ordinary respiratory efforts are necessary, as in oratory, 
singing, blowing upon wind instruments, etc., increased 
expiratory force is created, and the elastic recoil is aided 
by the powerful contractions of large abdominal muscles, 
which, pulling down the ribs and pressing upon the con- 
tents of the abdomen, forcibly push up the diaphragm, 
and thus squeeze out the air from the lungs. Correspond- 
ing inspiratory power results from a forcible contraction 
of the diaphragm and of the respiratory muscles of the 
chest. 3 

264. In children, especially under three years of age, 
breathing is effected mainly by the contractions and relax- 
ations of the diaphragm. 4 As the person grows older and 

1 By placing the ear over a healthy lung, we can hear the strong movement 
of the air as it enters the chest. Expired, it gives a low-pitched sound, as of 
a very gentle wind. Variations in the pitch, volume, and quality of these 
respiratory sounds or " murmurs " enable the physician to detect diseases or 
disturbances. 

2 According to Dr. Burdon Sanderson, the relative durations of the periods 
of inspiration, expiration, and repose are to each other as 4:2:9, the duration 
of the whole respiratory act being represented by 15. 

3 In violent inspiratory efforts, following severe physical exercise, or when 
the action of the lungs is much impeded by disease, nearly all the muscles of 
the body may assist the respiratory muscles proper, by fixing various parts 
of the body so that the respiratory muscles may have the best opportunities 
for work. 

4 The action of the diaphragm in respiration is well illustrated with an open 
bell jar, whose lower and larger opening is tightly covered by thin rubber. 
Place a snugly-fitting cork in the neck of the jar, and through it put a glass 
tube, one end projecting above the opening of the neck, and the other end with 
a thin rubber bag or pouch firmly secured to it, nearly midway into the body 
of the jar. By pulling the rubber covering of the jar downwards, air will 
enter the tube at its upper end, and distend the bag, as in inspiration. When 
let go, air will be forced out, as in expiration. 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 189 

the muscles become larger and stronger, the from-side-to- 
side and from-bef ore-backward types of breathing become 
in the lower or upper part of the chest more marked. 
But at all periods of life, the free action of the diaphragm 
is especially necessary. Though mainly composed of invol- 
untary muscular fibres, the diaphragm is, to a certain 
extent, under the control of the will, and its strength, like 
that of the other respiratory muscles, can be increased by 
proper exercise, such as singing, reading aloud, oratory, 
etc. 1 Hiccoughing, sobbing, and laughter are occasioned 
by the spasmodic action of the respiratory muscles, espe- 
cially of the diaphragm. Laughter, crying, and sobbing, 
though generally under the control of the will, may become 
violent and uncontrollable, as is sometimes witnessed in 
the anger or sorrow of children. 2 

265. The movements of respiration are for the most 
part involuntary. From birth until death, asleep and 
awake, breathing, like the circulation, goes on involunta- 
rily. There should be in adults one act of respiration to 
every four or five beats of the heart, and, in children, one 
to every three or three and one-half beats. But one can 
increase somewhat the rapidity of the respiratory move- 
ment up to his limit by various forms of exercise. With 
such increase, the heart's movements must proportionately 
increase, or exhaustion and suffering ensue from " short- 
ness of breath." On the other hand, if the heart beats 

1 Physicians frequently meet with persons, especially those of sedentary 
occupations, whose breathing is shallow, the air-cells of the lungs expanding 
hut very little. Oftentimes by proper exercise of the muscles of the chest and 
diaphragm (i.e., by so-called luug gymnastics), the respiratory power can be 
increased to a marked extent, and incipient disease of the lungs warded off. 

2 It sometimes happens that persons having the charge of children are very 
severe upon them for persisting in sobbing, when it is utterly out of their 
power to desist. Fortunately, in general, nature teaches parents to avoid this 
blunder. 



190 RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 

rapidly from severe exercise, and the movements of the 
lungs do not proportionately increase, either on account 
of disease or restraint by tight clothing, the individual 
suffers in like manner, and is "out of breath." 

266. Soon after birth the number of respirations are 
about forty-five per minute ; at five years, twenty-six ; 
from twenty to twenty-five years, nineteen; about the 
thirtieth year, sixteen ; and from thirty to fifty, eighteen. 
The above is the average rate, but it is naturally more- 
rapid where there is small lung capacity, or when breath- 
ing rarefied air at great heights, or when taking exercise, 
walking, singing, etc. Of course, therefore, where the con- 
trary to these conditions exists, the rapidity is decreased. 1 
Few persons can, without great effort, suspend respiration 
for more than thirty or forty seconds at any one time. 
The desire for breath soon becomes imperative, owing to 
the circulation of blood of rapidly-increasing impurity, 
especially in the lungs and brain. By breathing forcibly 
for a few times, then taking a forced inspiration, respira- 
tion may be suspended for a minute, or even longer, thus 
enabling one to pass quickly through a cloud of dust, 
smoke, or other injurious matters in the atmosphere, or 
to remain for a short time under water. 2 

267. The quantity of air breathed varies. In ordinary 
breathing, during each act of respiration an average of 
twenty cubic inches of air, or about two-thirds of a pint, 
are inhaled and exhaled. This is called the tidal air, 
because it is the ordinary amount which ebbs and flows 

1 In fact, the rate of breathing varies, and has been found to be as low as 
9, and as high as 40 per minute, in different persons, when seated, and, as far 
as possible, under the same conditions. 

2 This ability to hold the breath can be increased by systematic practice, as 
in the case of the "water-kings and queens," who sew, write, and eat under 
water. 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 191 

in breathing. It is said not to penetrate, by the ordinary 
movements of inspiration, farther than the large bron- 
chial tubes. But by the process known as gaseous dif- 
fusion, the heavier carbonic acid in the air-cells and the 
vivifying and lighter oxygen in the bronchial tubes are 
mutually intermingled. But this intermixture of gases in 
ordinary breathing only partially renovates the air in the 
various parts of the lungs. It is estimated that from eight 
to ten respirations are necessary to change the whole quan- 
tity of air in the chest cavity. From what has been said 
it will be understood that in quiet, ordinary breathing 
about six quarts of air pass into and out of the lungs 
every minute, or about ninety gallons per hour, or sixty 
barrels per day. Large as this amount is, it is not suffi- 
cient for healthy persons during active exercise, or for 
any one, if the atmosphere be vitiated by impurities. Con- 
tinued ordinary (or tidal air) breathing, such as is common 
among persons engaged in sedentary occupations, is insuffi- 
cient for the healthy development of the lungs. For this 
reason, among others, systematic exercise in the open air is 
important. Were it not for the more profound inspiration 
and expiration which usually occurs at about every fifth 
or sixth act of respiration, whereby an increased amount 
of air is carried into and out of the lungs, such persons 
would suffer more than they do from the excess of carbonic 
acid not eliminated. 1 

268. It has been already stated that a healthy lung 
contains air which cannot be expelled. This is called 
residual air. The air which remains in the lungs after an 
ordinary expiration, but which may be expelled by a forced 

1 It is well known to physicians that persons with "shallow respirations," 
either because of sedentary occupations, or from habit, or tight clothes, are 
most likely to suffer from consumption and other lung diseases, especially if 
the air breathed is impure. 



192 RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 

expiration, is termed reserve air. By a forcible inspi- 
ration after an ordinary inspiration, an average of about 
120 cubic inches of air may be inhaled. This is known 
as complemented air. The extreme breathing capacity, or 
vital capacity, as it has been called, is equal to the vol- 
ume of air which can be expelled from the lungs by a 
forcible expiration following a deep and forcible inspira- 
tion. It may be determined by an instrument known as 



Complemental air ... . 100 to 120 cubic inches. 

Tidal air 20 to 30 " " 

Reserve air 75 to 100 " " 

Residual air 75 to 100 " " 



Fig. 65. 

If the above diagram represent the greatest amount of air that can be 
inspired, then the different divisions will approximately represent the comple- 
mental, tidal, reserve, and residual air. 



the spirometer, 1 and is found to be, in a person of aver- 
age stature (5 ft. 8 in.) about 230 cubic inches ; but the 
vital capacity is no evidence of itself of vitality or endur- 
ance, or so-called "wind," for it bears a definite relation 
to stature, without being affected in a marked degree 
by weight or the circumference of the chest." 2 It is 
diminished by severe thoracic and abdominal diseases; 

1 Commonly called "lung-tester." 

2 It has been shown by Hutchinson of England, who has made the most 
numerous investigations in this direction, and who makes the above statement, 
that for every inch in height between five and six feet, the vital capacity is 
increase! eight inches. It increases up to the age of thirty-five, and then 
diminishes. 




RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 193 

but the vitality of an individual depends more upon the 
condition of the heart than upon the expansive capacity 
of the lungs. 

269. The changes that take place in the air during 
respiration are as follows : Inspired air is robbed of a 
large part of its oxygen, which is appropriated by the 
blood between the adjacent walls of the air vesicles. At 
the same time the air acquires various matters, the results 
of tissue changes, which have been brought to the air-cells 
by the circulation. Hence, expired air is charged with 
noxious materials, and will not support combustion or 
maintain life. Animals and human beings obliged to 
breathe it exclusively soon die. It contains carbonic 
acid 1 in excess, and small quantities of various excretory 
products similar to those excreted by the skin and kid- 
neys ; 2 also, an animal matter which is offensive and very 
prone to putrefy. It differs also from inspired air in that 
its temperature, especially in slow and tranquil breathing, 
is raised to nearly that of the blood, and because it con- 
tains an excess of watery vapor. 3 This vapor is especially 
noticeable when the breath is exhaled upon a mirror or 
window pane, or when it condenses in winter, as it issues 
from the mouth and nostrils. 4 Carbonic acid gas is heav- 
ier than air, and is very poisonous to breathe. It consti- 
tutes about one twenty-fifth of the air that passes out of 

1 The amount of carbonic acid exhaled per day by a healthy adult is esti- 
mated at about 32,000 cubic inches, while the amount of oxygen consumed per 
day is estimated at about 40,000 cubic inches. 

2 " Chloride of sodium, uric acid, and urates of soda and ammonia. It also 
sometimes contains carbonate and hydrochlorate of ammonia, and carburetted 
hydrogen and various odorous substances from the food and drink consumed." 

3 The air exhaled per day contains an average amount of nine or ten ounces 
of water, but the amount varies with the temperature of the atmosphere. 

4 In cases of suspected death, the condensation of the watery vapor of the 
breath upon the glass of a watch or a hand-mirror is an important evidence 
that life is still present in the body. 



194 RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 

the lungs, and tends to make the atmosphere impure. 
The amount of carbonic acid expelled is increased by 
exercise, and during and after a hearty meal. It is 
greatest in winter and damp weather, and is especially 
abundant in the early morning, and is least at mid- 
night. 1 (a.') 

270. There are also changes in the blood during respira- 
tion. The ancients believed that the function of the air 
so regularly introduced into the lungs was to cool the 
blood. The chemist Lavoisier first ascertained that in- 
haled air was rich in oxygen, and exhaled air in carbonic 
acid. Physiologists, after prolonged and difficult investi- 
gations, found, first, that associated with these changes in 
the air was the striking change in the color of the blood 
from blue in the pulmonary veins to scarlet in the capil- 
laries of the lungs. Second, that this change was due to 
the inhaled oxygen. If the breathing is seriously ob- 
structed, the lips and face turn a purplish blue. If the 
obstruction be removed, the blood resumes its bright color, 
and the parts renew their functions. If the obstruction 
be not removed, the change in color is noticeable in other 
parts of the body, impure blood is circulated through the 
brain, and the individual becomes drowsy and unconscious, 
and death ensues. There is constantly going on in the 
blood a double change, — a loss of oxygen, and a gain of 
carbonic acid in the tissues ; and a loss of carbonic acid, 
and a gain of oxygen in the lungs. 

1 The presence of carbonic acid in the breath may be illustrated by the fol- 
lowing experiment, which is all the more striking if tried after one has talked 
or sung awhile, or after a hearty meal. First, the gas, being acid, will change 
the blue color of a solution of litmus to a red, when the breath is gently 
blown into the solution through a glass tube for a variable length of time. 
Second, that the expired air contains carbonic acid will be shown by changing 
clear lime-water, in the same manner as above, to a cloudy white liquid, due 
to the carbonate of lime formed. 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 195 

The urgent appeal of the lungs for pure air, when the 
breathing has been carried on in an impure atmosphere, or 
where the lungs are in a diseased or abnormal condition, 
is like the appetite for food on the part of the digestive 
organs. The cry originates in the tissues, which demand, 
in the one case the food, and in the other the oxygen, which 
are necessary to life. Carbonic acid is not only discharged 
by the lungs, but also by the kidneys and skin. In fact, 
as we have seen, the skin is an accessory organ of respira- 
tion, taking in oxygen, as well as giving out carbonic acid. 
In some of the lower forms of animal life the skin is the 
active organ of respiration. 

271. Animal Heat. It has been already stated that 
the living bodies of all animals have a temperature pecu- 
liar to each species. This is known as the vital or animal 
heat. Where the temperature is generally higher than 
that of the surrounding atmosphere, as in man, quadru- 
peds, and birds, the animals are distinguished as warm- 
blooded animals, while fishes and reptiles are known as 
cold-blooded animals, their temperature varying but little 
from that of the air or water in which they live. It 
was at one time supposed that the sole internal cause of 
this heat was the combustion of carbonaceous material in 
the lungs. At present it is known that " the production of 
heat in living organisms is in proportion to the activity of 
their internal changes. These changes are especially indi- 
cated by the absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of 
carbonic acid." While it is true that the more rapid the 
respiration the higher the temperature, heat production is 
not exclusively connected with respiration, but is essential 
to all the manifestations of animal life. Animal heat 
remains in the body for a variable period after the blood 
has ceased to flow and respiration has stopped and the in- 



196 RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 

dividual is said to be dead. Instances are on record of life 
being restored by the application of heat to the body, both 
externally and internally, and by arousing the circulation 
and the action of the lungs by means of electricity, the 
practice of artificial respiration, and the use of stimulants. 1 

272. Animal temperature is usually ascertained by 
means of a thermometer made for that purpose. 2 When 
in use the bulb of the instrument is generally placed in 
the armpit, or under the tongue, the lips being closed to 
exclude air. The temperature so ascertained is, in man in 
health, 98J° F. to 99° F. A temperature of 105° generally 
marks a severe attack of some disease ; one above 105° 
indicates great danger, and a " temperature of 110° to 112° 
is very quickly fatal, unless it yields to the application of 
cold." Seldom does the temperature fall below 91.4° F. 
One of 96° indicates great danger, and, to use a medical 
term, is a symptom of commencing " collapse." Below 
92° the possibility of recovery is small. 

Though the average normal temperature, as ascertained 
by the thermometer, is about 98J°F., the general tempera- 
ture of the interior of the body is about 100° F. ; but the 
temperature of different parts of the body varies some- 
what. In the skin and lungs, by reason of the contact of 
air and the vaporization of water, the blood is cooled a 
little, and the animal temperature is slightly diminished. 
On the other hand, the temperature is raised in the mus- 
cles and glandular organs, especially during their func- 
tional activity, and, above all, in the liver. 

273. It is also modified, first, by age, being higher in 
the young child than in the adult ; second, by the period 

1 See Emergencies, page 324. 

2 Known as a "medical" or "clinical" thermometer, designed especially 
for the use of physicians. 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 197 

of the day, rising quickly in the morning, more slowly 
towards night, and being lowest about midnight ; third, by 
food, rising during and after the digestion of a meal, espe- 
cially of warm food. It is increased also by muscular and 
mental exertion, and by surrounding higher temperatures, 
and, of course, is lowered by the opposite conditions. 
Exposure to moisture and a high degree of heat, espe- 
cially if accompanied with exercise, is apt to cause death, 
which is then said to be the result of "sunstroke" or 
u heatstroke." * The old, the feeble, and the inactive are 
most affected by high temperatures, and in them also ani- 
mal heat is maintained at its normal point with the greatest 
difficulty. With them the blood circulates more slowly, 
vital, chemical, and mechanical processes take place less 
rapidly, and heat is generated in smaller amount than in 
robust health. "Thence it is," says Bennett, "that the old 
man seeks the sun, and that we find him in the country 
sitting at his door for hours, basking in the sun, seeking 
from its genial rays the warmth which the organic pro- 
cesses no longer afford, as in former days, the days of his 
youth, and of his organic vigor." 

274. In summer and in hot countries perspiration 
and a decreased amount of clothing moderate the animal 

1 The terms "preternatural combustibility" and "spontaneous combus- 
tion " have been applied to the rapid destruction of the human body by fire, 
which has been supposed to have resulted from excessive animal heat. "It is 
significant that no case of spontaneous combustion has ever happened in an 
animal. Of all the so-called cases in man, not one has actually been seen to 
happen. . . . Such occurrences usually take place in persons addicted, during 
their life, to habits of intoxication. ... It is rational to conclude, more espe- 
cially as habitual drunkards are incapable of exercising care in regard to 
sources of danger, that they have themselves, in a state of intoxication, set 
fire, in falling, or otherwise, to their clothes or other combustible materials, 
or that they have been reached by flames, otherwise occasioned by the falling 
of candles, or by the emission of sparks from the fire." — Outlines of Physi- 
ology. Marshall. 



198 RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 

temperature ; in cold climates and seasons the heat of the 
body is preserved by extra clothing, and by warming the 
atmosphere with artificial heat, by more exercise, and an 
increased amount of food. It is the testimony of many 
observant travellers, that the health of persons journeying 
from one climate to another is best preserved when the 
customs of the inhabitants of these climates are followed, 
in regard to food, exercise, and clothing, (a.) 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the object of respiration, and what are its organs? 

2. Describe the lungs, and how free movements of them are secured. 

3. Name the air passages and their four functions. 

4. Describe the nose, and its advantages over the mouth as an air 



5. With what passage do the nasal cavities connect, and what tubes 

and glands are there located? State the object of the tubes. 

6. How may enlarged tonsils cause a child to become pigeon-breasted? 

7. What is situated below the pharynx, and of what air passage is it 

the commencement ? 

8. Describe the larynx ; the trachea ; the bronchial tubes ; the lobules. 

9. How are the trachea and other air-tubes kept open? How the 

smaller tubes ? 

10. .Why do these tubes terminate in convoluted lobules, and what 

blood-vessels are there placed? 

11. Of what does the mechanical act of respiration consist? Describe 

each process. 

12. What may aid powerful respiratory efforts ? Describe the action 

of the diaphragm. 

13. What connection has the will with respiration? the heart? the 

condition of the blood ? 

14. Explain what is meant by tidal air ; by residual air ; by reserve 

air ; by complemental air ; by vital capacity. 

15. What changes take place in the air during respiration? in the 

blood? 

16. Where does the appeal for fresh air originate, and how is the 

needed oxygen supplied through the lungs? 



RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL HEAT. 199 

17. In what other way is oxygen introduced into the system ? 

18. Define animal heat. What are its sources, and by what is it 

affected and regulated ? 

19. What is the average degree of temperature in health, as ascer- 

tained by the thermometer ? 

20. What is the average temperature of the interior of the body? 

21. How can we maintain the normal temperature of our bodies ? 



I. Object. 



II. Organs 



ANALYSIS OF THE TWELFTH CHAPTER. 
RESPIRATION. 

1. Lungs \ St ™ture. 

( Functions. 

2. Air passages, — or nose, mouth, 

pharynx, larynx, trachea, and > . 

1 Functions. 



bronchial tubes. 

III. Mechanism, — Inspiration and expiration 

IV. Amount of Air Breathed. 

V. Effects \ Upon the air * 

C Upon the blood. 



ANIMAL HEAT. 
I. Causes. 
II. Necessity. 

III. Range in Health and Disease. 

IV. How Modified. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

275. So well is man adapted to the atmosphere, that its 
density cannot be much increased or diminished without 
interference with the circulation, respiration, and other 
vital processes. The thickness of the atmosphere is sup- 
posed to be not less than 45, and not more than 200 miles ; 
and the pressure of this immense mass at the sea level is 
computed to be 15 lbs. upon every square inch of surface. 
Upon the body of a man, therefore, of average size, it is 
more than sixteen tons. 1 This pressure, enormous as it 
appears, is of vital importance to the animal economy. At 
great heights, where atmospheric pressure is diminished, 
breathing becomes exceedingly difficult, or impossible. 
Not only does the rarefied air not furnish sufficient oxygen 
to the lungs, but carbonic acid is imperfectly eliminated, 
and owing to the diminished pressure upon the blood-vessels, 
that pressure is overcome by the force of the circulation, 
and bleeding may occur from the nose, mouth, and ears. 2 

276. In deep subterranean and submarine excavations, 
such as mines, tunnels, etc., the atmospheric pressure is 
so increased that the workers in them are often disabled. 
Sometimes in the construction of the piers of such large 
bridges as that over the East River, between New York 
and Brooklyn,' it is necessary to sink an immense inverted 

1 The surface of a man's body of medium size is about fifteen square feet. 

2 In the reports of the dredging operations of H.M.S. Challenger, it is said: 
Fish were brought up from great depths distended and deformed, with their 
swimming bladders protruding from their mouths, because, on coming to the 
surface, the great pressure under which they were accustomed to live was 
removed. 



AIR,. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 201 

box or " caisson," in which men work, digging out the 
earth for the foundations. As the earth is excavated, the 
caisson sinks, and the air which it is necessary to pump 
in becomes exceedingly dense, and its pressure equals the 
pressure of the water without. 1 Such dense air is as 
injurious as exceedingly rarefied air, producing severe neu- 
ralgic pains, great prostration, hemorrhages, or paralysis. 2 

277. Atmospheric air is a mixture, the essential ingre- 
dients of which are oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, and 
watery vapor. The first two exist in the proportion of one 
part in bulk of oxygen to four parts of nitrogen. The 
amount of carbonic acid is very small at ordinary eleva- 
tions, or about one gallon in every 2500 of air. Its pres- 
ence in the atmosphere is shown by the film of carbonate 
of lime which forms upon lime water when exposed to the 
air. The amount of watery vapor depends largely upon 
the temperature of the air. 3 

1 "Sometimes in deep mines, and in works conducted under water, as in 
laying the foundations of bridges, the pressure of the air is as much as sixty 
or seventy pounds avoirdupois on the square inch . . . Great care should 
be taken that those who are subjected to such high pressure be not suddenly 
exposed to air at the normal pressure, for the effect is equivalent to the ap- 
plication of a gigantic cupping-glass to the whole body." — Human Physio- 
logy. Powers. 

2 " Caisson disease " has seriously impaired the health of the chief engineer 
of the East River Bridge, and also that of some of the workmen. At the St. 
Louis Bridge, when one of the caissons touched a rocky bed, the atmospheric 
pressure was 45 lbs. to the square inch, and by the rise of the river it was 
increased to 50 lbs. When the pressure was 34 lbs. severe suffering began. 
It was found that the men could only work one or two hours at a time. They 
were generally taken sick when coming out of the air-lock into the normal 
atmosphere, seldom in the air-lock itself. 

3 " It seldom forms more than ^Vtiij or less than i^th of the bulk of the 
air." — Chemistry of Common Life. Johnston. 

That water is present in the air is seen by its condensation in drops upon an 
ice-cold vessel — a pitcher or tumbler of ice-water — in hot weather ; also in 
the dew, hoar frost, fog, rain, and snow, and in the effect on certain solid sub- 
stances which have the property of combining with water and becoming liquid. 
Such substances, of which calcium chloride is an example, are said to be 
deliquescent. 



202 AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

278. In the specimens of air that have been examined 
from time to time in different localities, and at varying 
altitudes, the relative proportions of oxygen and nitrogen 
have been found to vary but little, but the amounts of 
carbonic acid and watery vapor materially. Other ingredi- 
ents are occasionally present in appreciable quantity ; viz., 
ozone, ammonia, 1 nitrous and nitric acids, dust, and gases 
from marshes, factories, chemical works, etc. 

279. Oxygen, as we have seen, is necessary to purify 
the blood and sustain life. Animals usually die when the 
quantity of oxygen in the atmosphere is reduced from 
three to five per cent. Without it, combustible bodies 
would not burn. Its dilution with nitrogen, which is a 
harmless, inert gas, is in the exact proportion which is best 
required to support life, and that degree of combustion 
which is most useful to the ordinary purposes of mankind. 
Any diminution of its normal amount is attended with as 
bad results as is the addition to air of harmful substances. 
On the other hand, were the oxygen in excess, it would 
become a very destructive agent, and in proportion to that 
excess. In such cases the tissues of animals would be 
rapidly consumed, together with all bodies having any 
chemical affinity for oxygen, and such as were set on fire 
would burn beyond control. But, as in the case of other 
nutritive substances, we cannot live on oxygen only. Just 
as we find the most valuable food constituents to become 
less valuable when used alone, so oxygen requires also to 
be diluted with the other ordinary constituents of the air 
to become even respirable. 

280. As the diamond, charcoal, and graphite are dif- 
ferent forms of carbon, so ozone is a form of oxygen, but 
has greater chemical activity as an oxidizing agent ; hence, 

1 Of ammonia there are about 3| gallons in 10,000,000 gallons of air. 



AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 203 

it is a powerful disinfectant, and is recommended for the 
purification of sick rooms. 1 It exists in very minute quan- 
tity in the air, and thus diffused, is considered a stimulat- 
ing agent in debilitated conditions of the system. It is 
much more abundant in the country than in towns, and 
its quantity is increased just after a thunder storm. Air 
highly charged with ozone is irrespirable, and is capable of 
bleaching and destroying vegetable coloring matters. 

281. It sometimes happens that air is rendered more or 
less injurious by the accumulation of dust and other sus- 
pended matters, or by an undue proportion of one or more 
of its normal constituents, or by the addition to it of poi- 
sonous gases. 

A ray of sunlight in a darkened room, or in the open 
air, upon a foggy da}^, reveals in its track myriads of shin- 
ing particles of dust, however clear the atmosphere may 
otherwise seem. From the researches of Tyndall, Pasteur, 
and others, we know that this dust consists, according to 
the place, in varying proportions, of starch granules, 
cotton fibres, spores, seeds, pollen, and cellular tissue, of 
wool, hair, epidermal cells, and other animal substances, 
— sometimes in a state of decay, — of particles of carbona- 
ceous and siliceous or flint-like matters, and of microscopic 
organisms in a living state. 

282. These substances come from factory and home 
fires, from the combustion and decay of animal and vege- 
table bodies, from the " wear and tear " of wooden and 
stone pavements, shoe-leather, furniture, carpets, uphol- 
stery, clothing, etc. From hundreds of sources these 
suspended matters are wafted by the winds, and some 

1 The quantity varies at different times and places, but is said to be, at the 
most, about one volume in 700,000 of air, and is quite constant in the atmos- 
phere among pine trees. Ozone passed through a mass of putrifying material 
will rid it of noxious odors. 



204 AIR . — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT . 

believe are also carried by flies, mosquitoes, and other 
insects. They are found almost everywhere, even pene- 
trating close joints of carpentry work. When in large 
quantity in the air, as at times in cities, they are frequently 
irritating to the respiratory organs, especially of feeble 
people. In such cases it is advisable to protect the mouth 
and nostrils by a handkerchief, tippet, or veil, or a piece of 
cotton wool or sponge, or any other object through which 
the air can be breathed, and at the same time the dust be 
prevented from entering the air passages. 1 In the same 
way the temperature of very cold air may be mitigated, 
and be more safely breathed. 

283. In addition to the substances already mentioned, 
it is believed by many physicians, that at certain times 
there are wafted through the air peculiar particles called 
" disease germs" which are capable of producing, accord- 
ing to their kind, particular diseases, such as small pox, 
scarlet fever, diphtheria, yellow fever, etc., — each disease 
having its own peculiar germ, (a.) The " germ theory" of 
infection has arisen from observing the manner in which 
the thistle and other plants spring up in various parts of 
the world, in consequence of the wide diffusion of their 
seeds by the winds. (6.) The development of these 
germs is believed to be as rapid as is that of the spores of 
the yeast plant, when for both there are favorable condi- 
tions of warmth and moisture, and the former have a 
feeble human body as a nidus for development, and the 
latter fermenting material. Disease germs may lie dor- 
mant in cold weather, or where their surroundings are 

1 In certain occupations, such as stone cutting, metal polishing, knife and 
glass grinding, or in white lead works and other manufactories, the dust is so 
plentiful and irritating at times that ' ' respirators " are worn, consisting of 
frameworks of wire gauze, made to fasten over the mouth and nostrils, and 
containing a piece of sponge, cotton, wool, or other similar substance slightly 
dampened. 



AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 205 

clean, only to grow and develop in the presence of moist- 
ure and filth, and be carried long distances in merchandise 
and clothing, especially in woollen materials. 1 Complete 
isolation and cleanly surroundings of persons with infec- 
tious diseases (i.e., quarantining) will generally prevent 
the spread of infection. 2 

284. The organic nitrogenous matter which is thrown off 
from the lungs, mingled with carbonic acid and watery 
vapor, does much towards vitiating the atmosphere. Its 
exact composition has not been ascertained. It has a dis- 
agreeable, persistent odor, and is known to be poisonous. 3 
Combined with the emanations from the skin and other 
impurities, the mixture gives to the atmosphere of a 
crowded room that odor which is so disagreeable to those 
who enter the room from the outer air, or that close, 
oppressive sensation, perceived so often in the unventilated 
rooms of tenement houses. 

Air containing such ingredients ordinarily acts as a 
subtle poison, undermining the health, and changing the 
character of the blood, especially of those who are obliged 
to spend much of their time in it, and who do not exer- 
cise in the open air. It becomes exceedingly poisonous if 
breathed and rebreathed by a large number of persons in 

1 It is believed by Prof. Tyndall and others, that "disease germs" are 
among the most dangerous ingredients of the air of drains and cesspools, and 
only need the proper surroundings for their development. They may be 
conveyed also by milk and water. Children and feeble persons are most 
susceptible to their influence.' 

2 It is related that in the Scilly Isles, for ten consecutive years, there was 
not a death from, and only mild cases if any at all of, measles, scarlet fever, 
or small pox, though such diseases were very prevalent upon the mainland, 
with which there was little communication. 

3 In an experiment by Dr. Hammond, a mouse confined in an atmosphere 
of carbonic acid gas breathed with difficulty. When some of the organic mat- 
ter was removed from the atmosphere, although the air was still loaded with 
carbonic acid, the mouse breathed more freely. 



206 AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

close quarters, and the condition produced is known as 
ochlesis or " crowd poisoning." 

The history of the past gives fearful instances of such 
poisoning, but to a greater or less extent it is still to be 
found in many tenement and cheap lodging houses, in the 
holds of some emigrant vessels, in overcrowded schools, 
churches, and theatres, and especially in cheap places of 
amusement, (a.) Formerly, overcrowding with its con- 
sequent filth was the cause of many deaths from jail, 
ship, or typhus fever ; and it is still the prolific source 
of many subtle diseases, especially in cities and large 
towns. (£.) 

285. The term malaria literally means " bad air," but 
it is commonly applied to impure air which is capable of 
producing intermittent and remittent fevers, and to 
discomfort attended by more or less intermitting fever, 
or to certain forms of nervous disorders. The impurities 
consist of exhalations from vegetable matter in process 
of decay. The malarial poison emanates mainly at night 
from low and swampy regions, when the water in ponds 
and streams is stagnant, or where the vegetation is exposed 
to the heat of the sun. 1 (a.) 

286. The gases which most often, either alone or in 
combination with suspended matters, make air impure 

1 The deep upturning of the ground, as in the huilding of large sewers, and 
displacement of muddy soil to construct railroad heds, has produced malarial 
poison in localities where it had not been before. In a malarial region it is 
wise not to venture into the open air until at least a small amount of food has 
been taken. It is well also to keep in motion when out of doors. 

The Eucalyptus tree and the sun-flower, on account of the power they pos- 
sess of absorbing moisture by their roots, are valuable in drying the soil, and 
preventing malaria. Certain very malarious districts in Italy, near Rome, 
have been rendered healthy by the Eucalyptus tree. 






AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 207 

and dangerous to life, are carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, 
illuminating gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sewer gas. 

287. Carbonic acid, or carbonic anhydride, is the most 
constant gaseous impurity in the atmosphere. It is a 
heavy, invisible gas resulting from the combustion of all 
substances containing carbon, from the decay and putre- 
faction of all animal and vegetable substances, and from 
fermentation, and is given off during the respiration of 
animals. In nature it is ordinarily diffused throughout 
the atmosphere, and is absorbed by trees and plants. In 
them the gas is decomposed, the carbon being retained by 
the trees and plants for their growth, while the oxygen is 
returned to the atmosphere. That there is a compensat- 
ing interchange of oxygen and carbonic acid between 
plants and animals is shown in a well-arranged aquarium. 
If the fishes give off the necessary amount of carbonic 
acid for the health of the plants, and the plants furnish 
enough oxygen for the fishes, there will be little need of 
frequently changing the water. 

Notwithstanding the diffusive power of gases and the 
absorption of a large part of the carbonic acid by plants, 
it occasionally accumulates in such quantities in various 
places as to poison the atmosphere. When the moisture 
in the atmosphere is in excess, as in foggy weather, the 
amount of carbonic acid may increase from a little over 
three to eight volumes in 10,000. In damp weather, when 
the leaves are wet, its absorption by them is retarded, 
and it accumulates in the air. In manufacturing districts 
the accumulation is very great. When generated in low, 
confined places, such as cellars, beer vats, cesspools, caves, 
and mines, it may be retained for a time, partly by its 
weight and partly because it is generated faster than it 
can be diffused in the places in which it is generated, ren- 



208 AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

dering the air therein, especially in its lower stratum, dan- 
gerous to breathe and incapable of supporting combustion. 
The impurity may be tested by the going out of a lighted 
candle on its introduction into the impure air. 1 In the 
" Dog's Grotto," near Naples, and in various other places, 
carbonic acid is continually generated. Thus accumu- 
lated, it almost instantly kills animals and plants within 
the reach of its influence. (<x.) 

288. The amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere 
can be quite readily determined, and its presence implies 
the presence also of other impurities. It is said that the 
odor of crowd poison becomes generally perceptible when 
the carbonic acid in the room exceeds six parts in 10,000 
volumes of air. This is the amount mentioned by Dr. 
Parkes, the eminent sanitarian, as the "limit of permis- 
sible impurity," yet a much larger amount is often found 
in the air of houses, schools, etc. But though the odor 
of crowd poison be perceptible, carbonic acid itself has no 
odor. Usually, therefore, its subtle effects are upon us 
before any warning has been given. It accumulates in 
houses not well aired, from illuminating gas, lamps, fur- 
naces, stoves, decaying vegetables and wood, and from our 
own breathing, (a.) The results of breathing it in any 
considerable quantity for a length of time are headache, 
dullness, giddiness, nausea, chilliness, and even uncon- 
sciousness and death. It is estimated that in general one 
per cent causes distress, four per cent renders air danger- 
ous, while ten per cent destroys life. 

1 Recently, in one of our large cities, in a house which had heen shut up for 
the summer, several members of the family were taken sick soon after they 
reached home, and two died. The local health authorities, in the examina- 
tion of the house, found that, in the unventilated cellar, a candle would not 
hum ... " Choke damp " is the term given by miners to the carbonic acid 
generated in mines. 



AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 209 

289. A much more poisonous gas than carbonic acid is 
carbonic oxide or carbon protoxide, for it not only robs the 
air of oxygen, but it destroys the blood globules, and its 
evil effects are not readily dissipated by fresh air, as is the 
case with carbonic acid. It is colorless, has but little, if 
any, odor, and is often found with carbonic acid. It re- 
sults from imperfect combustion, and may pass through 
ill-fitting joints of furnaces and stoves, and, it is said, 
through the cast iron itself when it is very hot. This is 
more likely to happen when the supply of cold air is 
insufficient, or the escape of the products of combustion 
is largely prevented by smoke-pipes that are too small, or 
by the dampers. A stove or furnace should therefore be 
so large that it can warm the room without being itself 
very hot. Smoke-pipes should be large, and without 
dampers. More coal will thus be consumed, but the dan- 
ger will be lessened. 1 Combined with sulphur compounds 
in the imperfect combustion of coal, carbonic oxide has 
the peculiarly disagreeable odor known as that of " stove 
gas " ; but being odorless, when not combined, it may 
slowly insinuate itself into a room, and gradually under- 
mine the health ; whereas " stove gas " is irritating to the 
nostrils and throat, causing dryness, constriction, and a 
disagreeable smell and taste. 2 

290. Marsh gas? so called because in hot weather it 
may be evolved from the putrefaction of vegetable matter 
in the mud at the bottom of stagnant pools, is the same 

1 Some one has said, " It needs a philosopher to run a furnace properly." 

2 Recently, two ladies having sat in a room for an hour or two sewing, be- 
gan to feel dizzy, and to tremble so persistenly, that sewing was dispensed 
with. While wondering what it meant, one became unconscious and the other 
nearly so. A gentleman entering the room perceived the odor of coal gas 
which had not been noticed by the ladies, and, on examination, found that 
the damper in the smoke-pipe had fallen so as to stop the escape of gas. 

3 Now termed methyl hydride. 



210 AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. ' 

as the " fire damp " of the coal mines. It constitutes a 
considerable portion of illuminating gas made by distilling 
coal. It is a compound of carbon and hydrogen, and is 
colorless, explosive, and poisonous. 

291. Illuminating gas, as ordinarily delivered to the 
consumer, is mainly a mixture of marsh gas (about one- 
third), hydrogen, and carbon protoxide. The very best 
kind of illuminating gas poisons the air into which it may 
escape ; but if the gas has not been thoroughly purified, it 
contains other and much more poisonous ingredients than 
those already named. The old, the very young, and all 
whose sense of smell is not acute, may be gradually poi- 
soned by the slow escape of gas from a leaky gas pipe, with- 
out perceiving the odor of the gas. 1 

292. Sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrogen sulphide, is a 
colorless gas, with the odor of putrefying eggs. It is very 
poisonous. When breathed in a pure state, it quickly 
proves fatal, destroying the blood globules, and is still 
dangerous even when diluted with atmospheric air. 2 In 
houses and other buildings it emanates from decomposing 
refuse in garbage receptacles, from cesspools and drains, 
and is a component of sewer gas. 

293. Sewer gas, 3 especially of late years, has been held 
responsible for much of the sickness in houses connected 
with drains and sewers. " Sewer-gas poisoning," from 

1 " To detect leaks in gas pipes, apply soap suds to the suspected leaky joint. 
The formation of bubbles will show an escape. This is safer than trying the 
joint with a lighted match. If the leak occur in the branch of a bracket or 
chandelier, it is repaired by soldering with plumber's fine solder ; if it be a 
very small one, heat the piece first with a spirit lamp, and fill the aperture 
with cement." — The /Sanitarian. 

2 stjotJh part in the air is sufficient to kill a mouse. 

3 Probably a compound of carbonic acid, nitrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, 
ammonium sulphide, and other substances, and containing disease germs. 



AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 211 

defective plumbing of houses and insufficient airing of 
the sewers, undoubtedly exists, but the plumber is fre- 
quently blamed for sickness which is due to other causes. 
Still, odorless and poisonous sewer gas may escape into 
a room without its presence being known, or it may have 
a faint, sickly odor, or an odor like that of sulphuretted 
hydrogen, depending on the constituents of the gas, and 
may lower the vitality, thus making us susceptible to dis- 
ease. Its presence should be excluded by well-ventilated 
sewers, and drains with tight joints ; the pipes, closets, and 
basins should be so placed that, if a leak occurs, it will 
not imperil the health of the inmates of the house. 1 

294. Sometimes the air in houses is " devitalized," or 
robbed of its life-sustaining properties by other means 
than by poisonous gases ; viz., by a mixture with the 
emanations from decaying lumber in cellars, from musty 
clothes stored in closets, from poisonous wall papers («.), 
or decomposing paste between the layers of wall paper, 
from decomposing food in pantries, from tobacco smoke, 
etc. (&.) Sometimes houses built upon ground made 
by filling in depressions with dirt, ashes, and decaying 
animal and vegetable matter, as is too often the case, are 
permeated by deleterious gases, which find their way into 
them through cellar walls and floors, especially in winter, 
when the furnace and other fires in the houses create a 

1 A refrigerator connected with the sewer leads to the tainting of articles 
kept in it. Waste water pipes from roofs connecting with the sewer may con- 
vey sewer gas into the upper part of the house if these pipes open under win- 
dows, as is sometimes the case with mansard roofs. Occasionally, rats gnaw 
through lead pipes, and thus sewer gas escapes into houses ; or the roots of trees 
penetrate faulty joints of drain pipe. Workmen have lost their lives in the 
opening of old cesspools, when the contents were stirred; though, before that 
operation, a candle would burn if lowered in the vat. During and after heavy 
rains, swollen rivers and streams often prevent sewage from escaping into 
them, and sewer gas " backs up " into houses, causing discomfort and 
sickness. 



212 AIE. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

draught. In such cases the inmates suffer after the man- 
ner of those afflicted with malarial poison. 1 

295. It has been shown by Pettenkofer and others that 
bricks, ordinary mortar, cement, and sandstone are perme- 
able by air and moisture. 2. Moisture also collects upon the 
walls of new houses, or those in damp situations, and is a 
source of disease, (a.) Mr. Chadwick states that houses 
newly built should not be occupied as dwellings until at 
least nine months after their completion, in order that the 
mortar, cement, etc., may become thoroughly dry. It is 
also a matter of great importance that the ground upon 
which houses are built should be thoroughly drained and 
dry, else the dampness will be promotive of consumption, 
rheumatism, and other severe affections. 3 Harmful gases 

1 Authorities say that new ground should not be built upon until after 
three years. 

2 " A remarkable case in a London house has come to my knowledge, which 
gives a distinct proof of the much greater passage of gas through the walls in 
winter than summer. A small room occasionally used was noticed sometimes 
to have an unbearably bad smell. This was never noticed in summer, nor in 
winter, unless a fire was lighted in the room. The drainage was suspected 
and examined, but was found perfect ; yet here was this extraordinarily foul 
air making its way into the room whenever the interior was warm and the ex- 
terior cold. The cause was a dust bin built against one of the walls, and the 
filtration of the air through this and the house wall into the room." — Air and 
its relations to life. Hartley. 

3 Sand absorbs and retains but little water; but clayey soil, ten to twenty 
times as much as sand ; while rich earth absorbs and retains, it is said, forty 
or fifty times as much. Hard, rocky soils allow but little water to pass through 
them. An ideal building site is upon the side of a gently sloping hill (with a 
rocky and sandy soil) , looking towards the south, not near a marsh or sluggish 
stream, and with good drinking water, and enough trees to protect it from the 
strong sunlight, and to absorb any excess of moisture there maybe in the soil. 
On the other hand, very many trees, by affording too much shade, make the 
surroundings of a house damp, shut out sun-light, and assist in the production 
of malaria. It is of considerable importance that the trees should be of such 
kinds as to afford ample shade, and at the same time have no unpleasant odor. 
The trees which best meet these requirements, and that are pleasing to the eye, 
are the oak, elm, maple, tulip tree, ash, mulberry, linden, horse chestnut, and 
walnut. 



AIK. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 213 

also may be conveyed by even the best soil from leaky 
drains, sewers, gas pipes, and other sources of impurities. 
Pettenkofer mentions an instance of the death of one of 
the inmates of a house from illuminating gas from a leaky 
pipe, which had penetrated through the earth a distance 
of twenty feet into the basement. 

296. Cowper says, " God made the country, and man 
made the town," and undoubtedly the air is very pure 
in those country districts where the inhabitants are not 
crowded together ; where there are no factories or nuis- 
ances, no decomposing garbage, or other refuse ; where the 
water supply is abundant, and no stagnant water exists ; 
where the houses are well drained, and so placed that the 
sunlight enters the rooms; and where the dwellings and 
outhouses are at least one hundred feet apart. But where 
these conditions do not exist, the better portions of most 
towns and cities are preferable. Moreover, in the country 
there are not so apt to be health boards and sanitary 
associations to remedy evils. 1 

On the other hand, the numerous overcrowded and 
dirty tenement houses in the large cities are productive 
of very great mortality, and are often sources of danger to 
the better portions, being the starting-points of infectious 
diseases, low forms of fever, etc. Of late years "model 
tenement houses " have been erected in some of our cities, 
in which overcrowding and uncleanliness are prohibited 
by the owners. (<x.) 

297. The various impurities in the air, besides taking 
the place of oxygen, irritate the air passages and lungs, or 

1 By the enlightened and active work of such bodies much good has been 
done. By proper drainage of low, swampy, or submerged lands, malarial fevers 
have been " crowded out," and the soil redeemed for corn and grain, or for 
building purposes. The health tracts and reports published by the above 
organizations contain much valuable information. 



214 ALU. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

poison the blood directly by being absorbed by the organs 
of respiration. Where there is a moderate amount of im- 
purities, not only is the blood rendered less pure, but the 
health of the tissue through which it passes is lowered, 
and the vital processes are depressed, and the individual 
becomes susceptible to contagion and infection. In a man- 
ner not yet fully comprehended, emanations from organic 
matter in process of putrefaction induce typhoid and typhus 
fevers, consumption, and other grave diseases. 1 (a.) 

298. Many of the dangers arising from impure air may 
be obviated by suitable ventilation and by purification by 
means of chemicals. 

By suitable ventilation is meant the free admixture of 
outdoor air with that of buildings and apartments, but 
so modified as to temperature and velocity of current, in 
its admission into rooms, that "draughts" are prevented. 1 
Suitable ventilation should take place by night as well as 
by day. The airing of one room by introducing the con- 
fined air from another is not suitable ventilation ; neither 
is it right to exclude from our sleeping-rooms the night 
air, of which so many live in fear. In fact, night air 
generally contains less carbonic acid than day air. (a.) 
But draughts of cold air, either by night or by day, are 
injurious to all, and especially to the feeble, the young, 
and the old. They lower the temperature of the body, 
and induce internal congestions. As some one has said, 
" a cold draught of air cuts like a knife." 2 

1 It has been shown that what will poison one person may have but little 
effect upon another less susceptible. There are some people who seem to 
"catch" everything, while others can expose themselves to impure air and 
sustain no apparent injury. In cities, noxious gases from factories, etc., 
sometimes poison susceptible people, and yet the poison may not be detected 
by the chemist or microscopist. 

2 " If cold wind reach you through a hole, go make your will and mind 
your soul." — Old Spanish proverb . 



ALEt. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 215 

299. The velocity of the air current may be somewhat 
diminished, and the air may be warmed in cold weather 
by causing it to pass, before entering rooms, through open- 
ings in the outer and inner sashes of a double window, 
or by bringing it into contact with heated furnaces and 
stoves, through their air-chambers or flues, or by its passage 
through one or more layers of fine wire gauze, woollen, 
cotton, or linen cloth fitted in frames into the windows, 
or arranged as screens before the open windows. In very 
warm weather, the air may be cooled somewhat by sus- 
pending dampened cloths in the rooms, or by causing it 
to pass over ice in the lower apartments of a house, and 
then forcing it by fans or engines into the upper rooms. 1 

300. Appliances for the free passage of air into and out 
of rooms are known as ventilators? These differ very 
much in structure and mode of action. The space below 
the decks of large ships, for instance, are ventilated by 
means of one or more huge " air shafts," having, at their 
upper extremities, wide-open mouths, so arranged that they 
automatically turn to or from the wind. Where there are 
two, the air enters one and ascends with the heated air 
from the cabins, etc., through the other, or it is forced in 
and out by means of large fans or engines. In a similar 
manner air is forced into tunnels, caissons, etc. In mines, 
ventilation is effected by building fires at the bottom of 
one shaft, thus sucking in the outer air through another 
shaft, and expelling the impure air through the shaft at 
the bottom of which the fire is built. 3 

1 The late President Garfield's room was made comfortable in this way 
during his last illness. 

2 The terms natural and artificial ventilation are often used. The first 
refers to that obtained by open fire-places, doors, and windows ; the last, to 
special appliances. 

3 Sometimes a single partitioned shaft is made to accomplish the same re- 
sult, the fire being built under one of the partitions in the shaft. 



216 AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

301. In dwelling-houses and other buildings, an out- 
ward draught of air is created in smoke pipes and chim- 
neys at all times, but especially when fires are burning 
in the grates, stoves, and furnaces. Hence, in very cold 
weather, and if the wind is blowing very hard, sufficient 
air for ventilating purposes may be " sucked in " through 
air-chambers and flues of furnaces, or by the sides of win- 
dow-sashes ; but, ordinarily, it is necessary to admit air in 
larger quantity, (a.) How to do this without injurious 
draughts is a difficult problem in some instances. It is 
sometimes advised that a room having but one window be 
ventilated by opening the window either at the top or at 
the top and bottom, and by opening a door into a hall or 
passageway ; or, if there are two windows, opening one at 
the top and the other at the bottom, while the door may 
or may not be shut. Such ventilation is attended with 
draughts. 

A safer plan is to admit air through wire gauze, cotton 
cloth, etc., as before described, or between the sashes of 
one or more windows, where the sashes meet, by placing 
under the lower ones boards occupying the whole width 
of the sash, and from three to six or more inches wide, 
depending upon the size of the rooms to be ventilated 
and the velocity of the currents of air. 1 The air thus 
passing in is not deflected directly downwards upon the 
occupants of the room. A current is created by the im- 
pure air escaping through open fire-places, or openings in 
the chimney. 2 

1 A simple and effectual arrangement is that of Dr. Keen; viz., fastening 
1 ' with tacks or loops a piece of paper or cloth across the lower ten or twelve 
inches of the window-frame, and then raising the lower sash more or less, ac- 
cording to the weather." It will probably occur to the reader that the cloth 
so placed may be suitably ornamented on one or both sides. 

2 Fire-places should not be entirely closed ; neither is it well to have them 
so large and open that a great draught is created, thereby drawing the air 



AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 217 

302. Arnott's automatic chimney-place ventilator, 1 or 
the revolving metal wheels inserted into window panes 
are simple and effective ventilators. Air may also be ad- 
mitted through small diagonal openings in the window- 
sashes. In factories, institutions, schools, public ve- 
hicles, and other places where the ventilation is to be pro- 
vided for many persons, it should be automatic; for, if 
regulated by the varied judgment of the numerous in- 
mates, it will prove ineffective, (a.) 

303. All houses having furnaces should have roomy 
air-boxes leading from the outdoor air to the air-chambers 
of the furnaces. If possible, the air should be drawn from 
above the street level, in order to be comparatively free 
from dust and other suspended matters. 2 

304. To keep the air in a proper condition, especially 
where rooms are small and there are many inmates, is a 
difficult matter; for, the smaller the room, and the larger 
the number of inmates, the swifter must be the currents 
of ventilating air, and the greater the danger from draughts. 
Hence, estimates of the necessary amount of air and cubic 
space which each person requires under various circum- 
stances have been made by sanitarians as guides to proper 
ventilation. 

too strongly out of the room and too much heat up the chimney. Such fire- 
places must needs consume a large quantity of fuel in order to radiate suffi- 
cient heat to be equally diffused throughout the room. The open fire-place 
stove, or " fire on the hearth," and the Franklin stove and its modification, 
with their outer jackets or envelopes, which receive and warm cold air as it 
passes through them into rooms, are preferable to ordinary stoves, which throw 
out dry and superheated air. 

1 A valve so arranged as to open with upward currents of air into the chim- 
ney, and to close with the downward currents. 

2 It is shameful to have to state that, at the present day, houses are some- 
times built without air-boxes, or with boxes that open into cellars instead of 
out of doors. Occasionally, foul air is sucked into apartments from cellars 
through defective air-boxes, thereby causing much sickness. 



218 AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

305. Dr. Parkes claims that a complete change of air 
three or four times per hour is all that can generally be 
borne without the sensation of draught. If the cubic 
space allowed to each person is less than 300 cubic feet, 
and there is no adequate ventilation, the danger to life is 
great. By most authorities, 600 cubic feet of space are 
considered as ordinarily necessary for each individual in a 
room of ordinary size. If the arrangements for ventilating 
are very poor, from 750 to 1,000 feet are required. In 
hospitals and factories, especially where the sources of 
impurities are many, from 2,000 to 3,000 cubic feet of air 
space are said to be necessary, (a.) 

306. Very often disagreeable odors may be removed 
from the air of a place, or the poison of gases lessened 
by the admission of an abundance of fresh air, which is 
far superior to smouldering paper, burning coffee, cologne 
water, and other things commonly used as purifiers, but 
which act only as deodorizers, simply replacing one odor 
with another that is stronger. 

It often becomes necessary, for the preservation of health, 
to remove impurities or bad odors in the atmosphere by 
the use of chemicals. These may be either in a solid, 
liquid, or gaseous form, and are known as disinfectants. 
Some of these act as antiseptics, from the power they 
possess of arresting putrefaction in animal and vegetable 
matter, and of preventing the development of disease 
germs. Belonging to this class are some metallic salts, 
especially the sulphates and chlorides of zinc and iron, 
together with chlorine gas, carbolic acid, and thymol. 1 



1 One part of thymol to 1,000 of water checks alcoholic and greatly retards 
lactic fermentation and putrefactive decompositions. It has the agreeable 
odor of thyme, is less poisonous than carbolic acid, and is ten times more 
powerful. 



AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 219 

307. Some substances act as absorbents of gaseous ema- 
nations from decomposing bodies. Charcoal and lime are 
of this class. The coating of walls, especially of cellars, 
with lime wash is a useful method of sweetening the at- 
mosphere, and should be frequently repeated. 

308. A third class of disinfectants acts chemically upon 
the results of decay, and thus renders them harmless. Chlo- 
rine (in the form of chloride of lime, or a solution of chlo- 
rinated soda), nitrate of lead, and sulphurous acid gas from 
burning sulphur, belong to this class ; they rid the air of 
sulphuretted hydrogen, and destroy bacteria. Cold arrests 
putrefaction, but does not destroy germs. Heat 200° to 
250° F. is a powerful disinfectant, and one capable of 
destroying all " disease germs." (a.) 

309. Light. In addition to an abundance of air of 
the right kind, animals, like vegetables, need sunlight. 
Without this the blood is impoverished, the skin and 
muscles grow pale, and vital energy is diminished, (a.) 
Secluded from the light, human beings become pale and 
sickly, just as plants do in cellars ; and, like plants, will 
grow stronger and healthier on removal into the light. 

During the prevalence of epidemics in some of our 
Southern cities, it was noticed that there was more sickness 
on the shady than on the sunny side of the streets. Houses 
should be so constructed that the sun can shine into the 
various rooms at some time within each twenty-four hours. 
But just as we have found to be the case with the other 
vital requisities of man, so there may be an excess of 
light, and of its accompanying heat. Too great exposure, 
in warm weather, to the direct rays of the sun may 
induce sunstroke. Even in the frigid zone, the glare of 
the light on the snowy landscape is attended with danger 
to the sight, — a danger which is also incurred by those 



220 AIR. — DISINFECTION. — LIGHT. 

who have the sun's rays reflected upon them from white 
sand and other reflecting objects. 1 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the thickness of the atmosphere? What its pressure and 

the importance of it ? Illustrate. 

2. What are the essential ingredients of the atmosphere ? 

3. What is to be said of the relative proportions and uses of nitrogen 

and oxygen ? 

4. What of ozone? What other ingredients are found in air? 

5. Of what does the dust in the air consist, and from what sources 

does it come ? 

6. Who should protect themselves from its evil effects, and how? 

7. What is to be said of "disease germs " and of their development? 

8. What of the organic nitrogenous matters thrown off by the lungs 

and their effects ? 

9. To what is the term malaria applied, and what are some of the 

causes of malaria ? 

10. What gases corrupt the atmosphere, and which one is constantly 

present therein ? 

11. From whence does the atmosphere derive its carbonic acid or car- 

bonic anhydride, and why should so poisonous a gas be an essen- 
tial ingredient of the atmosphere ? 

12. When and where is it apt to be in excess, and what are the effects ? 

13. What is to be said of carbonic oxide ? of marsh gas ? of illuminat- 

ing gas ? of sulphuretted hydrogen ? of sewer gas ? 

14. What other emanations than the above gases devitalize the air? 

15. What is to be said of damp building-sites and of leaky drains and 

gas pipes ? 

16. State the relative advantages of city and country life. 

17. What are the effects of an impure atmosphere upon the health, 

and how may they be obviated ? Illustrate as to ventilation ; 
also as to the use of chemicals. 

18. What effects follow a deprivation of light ? What its excess? 

1 "To obviate the dangers of an excess of light, nature carpets the earth 
with green, and either vaults the heavens with blue, or draws over them her 
gray curtain of cloud, and at proper intervals spreads over us the black pall 
of night, bringing with it refreshment and rest." 



ANALYSIS. 



221 



ANALYSIS OF THE THIRTEENTH CHAPTER. 



ATMOSPHERIC AIR. 



I. Pressure. 



II. Essential Composition J ^^^ 



f Oxygen. 

J Nil 



t Watery vapor, 
f Abnormal intermixture of essential components. 



III. Irregular J 
Composition 1 Intermixture of 
non-essential 
I components 



IV. Effects of Impure Air. 



v-*™*™»!K& 



Suspended ( Dust. 
matters \ Disease germs. 

'Carbonic oxide. 

Sulphuretted hy- 
drogen. 

Illuminating gas. 
_ Sewer gas, etc. 



Gaseous 
matters 



LIGHT. 

I. Effects of a Sufficient Amount. 
II. Effects of an Excess. 



222 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 



CE 

— CER 



SN — , 




Fig. 66. 

Posterior view of the spinal cord, — a portion of the cerebrum and cerebellum, 
and some of the nerves of the cerebro-spinal system. On the left side of the 
body some of the tissues are removed to show the deeper nerves, while the 
right side shows certain superficial ones. — CE, cerebrum; CER, cerebellum; 
B, nerves distributed to the arm ; SC, spinal cord ; SN", sciatic nerve. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

310. Some of the processes already studied, viz., Diges- 
tion, Circulation, Absorption, and Respiration, are com- 
mon to both animals and vegetables ; but the processes by 
which consciousness, will-power, voluntary motion, sight, 
hearing, etc., are accomplished, are, as far as at present 
known, peculiar to animals. One animal is superior to 
another in proportion to the number and development of 
these functions. In man, their number is the greatest, 
and their development the highest, so that man maintains 
supremacy over all other forms of creation. 

311. In health, all the organs of the human body 
possess a peculiar property known as irritability, 1 which 
enables each one to perform its function at the right time 
in the right way, and in accord with the functions of 
other organs. Thus, the gastric juice is secreted whenever 
any substance is introduced into the stomach, and the 
number of the pulsations of the heart bears a definite rela- 
tion to the frequency of the respiratory movements. This 
irritability or normal excitability of tissues, together with 
the performance of all vital functions, is made possible by 
the nervous system, through which all impressions are re- 
ceived, and by means of which motion, sensation, thought, 

1 "Irritability (irrito,! provoke). In Physiology, this word signifies the 
power of responding to a stimulus, as exemplified by the contractility of mus- 
cular tissue. In medicine, irritability implies an undue excitability of an 
organ or tissue, from disease or disorder, such as of the brain, spinal cord, 
stomach, eye, or bladder." — Dictionary of Medicine. Quai>\ 



224 THE ISTERVOUS SYSTEM. 

etc., are produced. This system regulates all the move- 
ments of the body, both voluntary and involuntary, and 
all the processes, and harmonizes the functions of the 
various organs. 

312. The healthy human body may be likened to a 
well-ordered community, in which various industries are 
carried on, each in a different way, but all conducive to 
the general good, and controlled by one official head and 
his subordinates. The various organs of the body are 
connected with the centre of operations, the brain, by 
means of nerves, which are like so many electric wires 
running to and from the seat of government of the com- 
munity. By this arrangement, notice of any disturbance 
is immediately communicated to "headquarters," and the 
remedy promptly furnished. The importance of the ner- 
vous system with its harmonizing influence is best appre- 
ciated when we witness the results of disturbances therein, 
such as irregular action of the muscles of the extremities 
in spasms and cramps, fluttering of the heart, convul- 
sions, etc. 

313. The general arrangement and structure of the ner- 
vous system is as follows : — 

Owing to the difference in location and function of its 
various parts, there are two divisions of the nervous sys- 
tem ; viz., the cerebrospinal nervous system, and the sym- 
pathetic or ganglionic nervous system. 1 The first-named 
division includes all that portion of the nervous system 
contained within the cranial cavity and the spinal canal ; 

1 At one time it was believed that one part of the body became diseased 
through "sympathy" with another part. As the second of the above-named 
divisions of the nervous system is largely responsible for the spread of disor- 
der and disease, it has been called " sympathetic " in deference to the old be- 
lief. The term ganf/lionic refers to the fact that this division of the nervous 
system is composed largely of ganglia or masses of gray nervous matter. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 

viz., the brain and the spinal cord, together with the 
nerves which branch off from each. This system presides 
over the functions of animal life as volition, sensation, etc. 
The second-named division, or the sympathetic system, 
includes all that portion of the nervous system located, in 
the main, in the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities, 
and which is distributed to the internal organs. Its spe- 
cial function is the regulation of involuntary processes, as 
growth and nutrition. 

314. The nervous system, whether simple in arrange- 
ment, as in the star-fish, or more complicated, as in the 
higher animals and man, consists of tivo different kinds of 
tissue, the one ivhite and the other gray. These differ 
from each other not only in color, but in structure and 
mode of action. The white matter constitutes the bulk 
of the nervous tissue, and is in large quantity on the ex- 
terior of the spinal cord and in the interior and lower sur- 
face of the brain. To the unaided eye, it seems to be but 
a mass of white, semi-solid material. In reality, it is min- 
gled with delicate and transparent connective tissue, so 
as to form slender threads, which, for the most part, lie 
parallel to each other. They are termed nervous fila- 
ments, or nerve fibres. Nervous filaments are cylindrical 
and of very small diameter. 1 Running longitudinally 
through the centre of each is a flattened, semi-transparent 
band of gray color, known as the " axis cylinder," which 
is the essential element of the nerve fibre. Through it 
the nerve current is transmitted. The filaments are dis- 
tributed to all the tissues, but in a varying degree. As 
they emerge from the tissues, they come together to form 
bundles. These in turn unite with other similar bun- 



1 They vary in size from 20V o °f an inch i n nerves to T o hoo °f an inch in 
the t>rain. 



226 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



dies, and the bundles, which are large enough to be seen 
with the naked eye, are called nerves. 1 

315. Nerves are of various sizes, 2 and are invested 
with a sheath termed the neurilemma. Each bundle of 
filaments is similarly sheathed, but with more delicate 
connective tissue. In all of the sheaths are capillary 




Fig. 67. (Leidy.) 
Mode of branching of nerves.— 1, 2, two 
bundles of nerve fibres; 3, a branch 
of three fibres ; 4, branch of two 
fibres ; 5, 6, branches of single 
fibres ; 7, decussation between two 
nerves. 




Fig. 68. (Gray.) 

Nerve cells from spinal cord. 

Magnified. 



blood-vessels. Though the nerve fibres are thus closely 
connected together, each filament acts independently of 
every other. When nerves are said therefore either to 



i From the Greek neuron. The structure of a nerve is similar to that of 
a string or cable, the individual threads or wires being united into strands, 
and the strands into the string or cable itself. The nervous filaments are not 
twisted as the threads and wires generally are in strings and cables ; but, like 
the wires in the largest cables of suspension bridges, they are for the most part 
parallel to each other, each being separate from its beginning to its end. 

2 The sciatic nerves, located in the back part of the thighs, are the largest 
in the body, viz., as large in circumference as the tip of the little finger of the 
average adult. That painful affection known as " sciatica " results from some 
irritation of the sciatic nerve. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 227 

"branch," or to "decussate" (i.e., cross each other), it is 
some of the filaments of which the nerves are composed 
which leave the nerves and branch off or cross each other. 
(Fig. 67.) The sole function of nerves is to transmit nervous 
force and impressions. 

316. The gray matter of the nervous system is of an 
ashen-gray color, and constitutes the external or con- 
voluted layer of the brain, various deposits in the centre 
of the brain and the centre of the spinal cord, and the 
masses called ganglia a in the different parts of the body. 
Under the microscope, this substance is seen to consist 
mainly of cells, known as nerve cells, which are intermin- 
gled with nervous filaments and connective tissue. These 
cells vary in form and also in size. 2 Some of them have 
long projections, which it is believed, for the most part, 
connect directly with the filaments of the nerves. Every 
collection of gray matter, whatever its situation or size, 
is a nerve centre. Its function is to receive nervous im- 
pressions and to originate and impart nervous force, which 
are conveyed to and from the nerve centres by means of 
nerves, (a.) 

317. The brain is the great mass of nerve tissue which 
occupies the cranial cavity. It consists of three parts ; 
viz. : first, the cerebrum, or brain proper, which is the 
largest, and occupies the upper, front, middle, and back 
portion of the cranial cavity ; next, the cerebellum, or "little 
brain," which about fills the lower and back portion of 
the cavity ; and, thirdly, the medulla oblongata? which is 
the smallest part, and is the broadened commencement of 
the spinal cord, lying below and in front of the cerebellum. 
(Fig. 69.) 

1 From the Greek word ganglion, meaning a knot. 

2 Viz., from 4 oV o to jho °f an inch. 

3 Sometimes called the " oblong cord." 



228 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



318. Both the brain and the spinal cord are divided 
by a longitudinal furrow into two portions, right and left. 
Both, being soft and easily pressed out of shape, are protec- 
ted from the dangers of shock, and of friction against their 
strong, bony encasements, by coverings called meninges or 
membranes, by connective tissue, and by fluid between 
certain of the membranes. The outermost membrane, the 




CER- 



Fig. 69. 

Vertical section of brain. — CE, cerebrum, left hemisphere; CER, cerebellum, left 

portion; MO, medulla oblongata; SC, spinal cord; OP, optic nerve. 

dura mater, 1 is white, thick, and very resisting. It lines the 
cranial cavity and the spinal canal, and has various shelf- 
like expansions in the former for the support of different 
portions of the brain. 2 Underneath the dura mater is the 
arachnoid? a closed sac of serous membrane (similar in 

1 "'Hard mother ' ; called dura because of its great resistance, and mater 
because it was believed to give rise to every membrane of the body." — 
Med. Diet. Dungleson. 

2 A sickle-like projection inward, in the longitudinal fissure of the brain, a 
horizontal partition between cerebrum and cerebellum, etc. 

8 A name originally applied to delicate membranes resembling spiders' webs. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 

structure to the pericardial and pleural sacs), which secretes 
an albuminous, lubricating fluid. The very considerable 
protection and freedom of movement afforded to the brain 
and spinal cord by this sac, with its soft and yielding 
liquid contents, is quite evident. Closely adherent to the 
brain and spinal cord, and dipping down into the furrows, 
is the third and last covering, the pia mater, 1 which is not 
in reality a membrane, but a fine net-work of capillary 
blood-vessels, in the meshes of a delicate connective tissue. 
Through these capillaries, and the large blood-vessels 
which enter at its base, the brain is abundantly supplied 
with blood. Usually, it has not more than one-fortieth of the 
weight of the body, yet it receives about one-fifth of the 
whole volume of the blood. This large proportion of 
blood indicates that the brain is intended for active work, 
but, as in other organs, its working capacity is dependent 
not only upon the quantity, but also upon the quality, of 
the blood which it receives. 

319. The size and weight of the brain depend somewhat 
on the size of the individual, but they also bear consid- 
erable relation to his intellectual capacity, (a.) In the 
lower animals, the cerebellum and the ganglia at the base 
of the brain are the largest, but in the higher animals and 
man, the cerebrum, as a rule, increases in size in proportion 
to the degree of intelligence. In man, the size is very much 
greater in proportion to that of the entire body than in 
any of the lower animals. The quality of the brain mate- 
rial is also undoubtedly a matter of importance, for the 
brains of some very intelligent persons have been found 
to be comparatively small. 

320. The brain proper, or cerebrum, is rounded upon 
its upper and lateral surfaces, where its shape conforms 

1 ' ' Delicate mother . ' ' 



230 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

to that of the skull, while its base or lower surface is 
more flattened, and rests anteriorly upon the floor of the 
cranial cavity, and posteriorly upon a membranous expan- 
sion of the dura mater separating it from the cerebellum. 
The longitudinal fissure, before referred to, divides the 
cerebrum into two nearly equal parts, called hemispheres, 
which, however, are connected towards their lower portions 
by a white, nervous substance, called a commissure. 1 

321. Both hemispheres are everywhere marked on their 
outer surfaces with irregular grooves and ridges, and are 
covered by gray matter. The undulations thus formed are 
termed convolutions. This convoluted arrangement pro- 
vides, in a small space, a large amount of gray matter, the 
source of nervous power. The convolutions, in propor- 
tion to their number and well-marked character, indicate 
the degree of intelligence in animals and man. In young 
children, especially before the age of seven years, when 
the brain is very soft and imperfectly developed, and the 
mental powers are not strong, the convolutions are not 
well marked. Such is also the case in the lower animals 
and in the uncivilized races of mankind. 2 The white 
matter of the hemispheres is large in amount, and con- 
sists of nerve fibres prolonged from various tissues and 
organs of the body. These fibres terminate in the gray 
matter of the convolutions and in the ganglia of the 
brain. 3 

1 That is, "point of union of two parts." 

2 " There are exceptions, however, as in the whale and elephant, in which 
the convolutions are exceedingly intricate and beautiful. The particular 
arrangement of the fissures and convolutions differ as the brain ascends through 
the half apes, the apes, and man." 

3 In the cerebrum are many curious and interesting anatomical arrange- 
ments; viz., cavities, ventricles or water beds, passage ways, curtains, etc., 
which, though important to the anatomist and physician, are too intricate and 
complex to be here described. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 

322. Notwithstanding the complicated structure of the 
cerebrum, and the fact of their being two hemispheres, it 
is a single organ, as far as the intellect is concerned, but 
a double one with relation to the two sides of the body. 
Impressions from either side of the body, such as result, 
for example, from injuries, will be appreciated through 
the hemisphere on the opposite side, owing to the decus- 
sation, in the course of the spinal cord, of nerve filaments 
which convey sensations. The bursting of one or more 
blood-vessels (i.e., apoplexy), or the stoppage of a vessel 
by a blood clot, on one side of the cerebrum, injures the 
nervous tissue and produces complete or partial paralysis, 
but only upon the opposite side of the body, owing to the 
decussation in the medulla oblongata of nerve filaments 
that convey motor impulses. 

323. The cerebrum is the organ of the mind. It is 
that part of the nervous system through which the intel- 
lectual and moral powers or faculties act. 1 These facul- 
ties, rightly used, make man the " noblest work of God"; 
for his is the highest organism, and " the one which best 
adapts itself to its environments." Of these faculties we 
shall speak more particularly of but one, — ■ the memory. 

324. Memory, or retentiveness, as it is sometimes called, 
is that faculty by which we retain in our minds the impres- 
sions received therein. 2 A good memory is essential to a 

1 Facts in regard to the functions of the nervous system are ascertained 
from the study of the lower animals, and hy experiments made upon them, and 
also by studying the results of disease and injury in the human being. It is a 
curious fact that the cerebral substance is not sensitive, but can be cut or torn 
without pain resulting. In general, loss of cerebral substance by disease or 
severe injury results in impaired memory, tardy, inaccurate, and feeble connec- 
tion of ideas, irritability of temper, easily-excited emotional manifestations, etc. 

2 All of the higher forms of animal life have memory. The elephant, it 
is said, will remember for months persons who attempt to injure him. The 



232 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

healthy development of the intellect. 1 It is the function 
of a good memory not only to retain facts, but to pro- 
duce them when wanted ; not merely to store up knowl- 
edge, but to use it at the proper time and in the proper 
way. Facts are not isolated from each other ; they have 
their connections and relations. When systematized and 
arranged, they teach us all that we can know of philos- 
ophy or science. To memorize dry catalogues of facts is 
to refuse to think, and is an abnormal use of the memory, 
which should never be permitted by the true educator of 
the mental powers, (a.) It is the connection between facts, 
and the perception of that connection by the logical facul- 
ties, which enables memory to retain its grasp upon them ; 
and when that connection is not perceived, memory becomes 
a rope of sand. 2 

325o Of the success of the various attempts which 
have been made, from time to time, to locate the organs 
of the mental faculties in various parts of the cerebrum, 
it is perhaps too early to speak with scientific accuracy, 
though much has been accomplished within the last few 
years towards localizing the centres of motion, sensa 

horse does not forget kind treatment, and the dog, more demonstrative than 
either, will readily approach and caress his kind master, while he slinks away 
from his persecutor. 

1 There is a common impression that a weakened memory is among the 
first evidences of a diseased hrain; whereas, in many forms of insanity the 
memory is normal, or even acute. 

2 ' ' We are apt to he carried away with a vague notion that there is no 
limit to acquirement, except our defect of application or some other curable 
weakness of our own. There are, however, very manifest limits. We are 
all blockheads in something ; some of us fail in mechanical aptitude, some in 
music, some in languages, some in science ; memory in one of these lines of 
incapacity is a rope of sand ; there must be in each case a deficiency of cere- 
bral substance for that class of connections." — Mind and Body. Bain. 

Curious instances are narrated, and in fact occur in the experience of every- 
one, which seem to show the exercise of considerable reasoning power in 
brutes. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 233 

tion, sight, smell, etc. 1 " It is known that irritation of 
the surface of the brain by electricity will evoke move- 
ments of the muscles. And it has been determined by 
experiments upon the lower animals what portions of 
the brain need to be thus irritated, in order to produce 
muscular movements in any particular part of the body. 
It has been further shown by similar experiments, and 
corroborated by studies of diseased conditions of the 
brain, that the removal of certain parts of the brain, 
respectively, or injury to them, will produce blindness, 
deafness, or lack of smell, etc., as the case may be." 2 
Whether the organs of the faculties may or may not be 
localized, the brain is, nevertheless, a part of the body, 
and subject to the same laws. In consequence, the exer- 
cise of the faculties wears out cerebral substance, which 
must be restored by obeying hygienic laws. If one 
faculty or set of faculties has been overtaxed, rest and 
the use of other faculties instead are demanded. The 
most vigorous intellect is generally found in the most 
evenly developed body; and so closely are mind and body 
related, that if the health of one fails, that of the other 
also is likely to be impaired. 



1 " The faculty of articulate language appears to reside in the third or 
inferior frontal convolution of the left side, which convolution would contain 
both the centre for the memory of words, and the centre for the coordination 
or combination of the movements of speech." — Tablets of Physiology. Cooke. 

The fact of the above localization is generally accepted by physiologists, 
but recent investigations seem to show that the centres for motion, sensation, 
and the mental faculties are not as isolated as has been hitherto supposed, but 
that they are more diffused and shade off into each other. Thus a wonderful 
provision is made for emergencies. If the very heart of an ideal centre or 
area be injured, there will be oftentimes sufficient nervous tissue remaining to 
perform the work in a more or less perfect manner. 

2 A dog, deprived of smell, by injury to a certain portion of the brain, 
will not touch a piece of meat temptingly put before him; but, if the piece is 
put into his mouth, the sense of taste enables him to recognize it, and then he 
devours it. 



234 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

326. The cerebellum, like the cerebrum, is covered by 
gray or ash-colored matter, which dips into the white sub- 
stance. There are no convolutions, but in their place 
nearly parallel ridges of irregular depth. 1 The cerebellum 
is well protected by its membranes and by thick, bony 
walls. Like the cerebrum, it is without feeling. Its func- 
tion is the coordination or harmonious regulation of the 
movements of the voluntary muscles. The necessity of 
its directing power is made manifest whenever that power 
is interfered with, as is shown in the unsteady gait of the 
drunkard, or where there is some injury or disease of the 
cerebellum. 

327. The third division of the brain, or medulla oblon- 
gata, is the upper enlarged end of the spinal cord, or " ob- 
long spine," as the name implies. It resembles the spinal 
cord in the arrangement of the white and gray matter. 
From its interior and from the under surface of the cere- 
brum arise what are known as the cranial nerves, which 
emerge from the cranial cavity through openings in the 
base of the skull, and are distributed to various parts of 
the head and neck, to the organs of special sense, and to 
some of the thoracic and abdominal organs. In the front 
portion of the medulla oblongata the motor nerve fibres 
cross or "decussate" in their passage to and from the 
brain. But a still more essential feature of the medulla 
oblongata is that, in its posterior and lowermost portion, 
nerves have their origin which control indirectly the func- 
tion of respiration. Important portions of the cerebrum 
or cerebellum may be almost destroyed by disease or injury, 
and in consequence the various mental faculties may be 
rendered almost useless, and sensation in general and the 

1 From the peculiar branching appearance of the gray matter in a perpen- 
dicular section of the cerebellum, it is called arbor vitae, or tree of life. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



235 



power of voluntary motion may be lost ; yet, if the points 
of origin of these nerves — vital knots or points, as they 
are sometimes called — are intact, life remains. If in- 
jured, breathing is impaired ; if destroyed, death necessa- 



CE 




-CE 



The lower surface or base of the brain. — CE, cerebrum, right and left hemispheres; 
CER, cerebellum, right aud left portions. Passing from one hemisphere to 
another is a white, broad, transverse band of fibres, like a bridge. This is the 
"Pons Varolii" (bridge of Varolius), and is a bond of union between the vari- 
ous segments of the brain. Underlying it is the upper portion of the medulla 
oblongata. The cranial nerves are shown branching out from under the front 
and middle portions of the hemispheres, and from the sides of the medulla 
oblongata. 

rily results. Hence, the protection of the medulla is an 
object of primary importance. It is accordingly so deeply 
buried within the skull that it is seldom injured by blows 
and falls. Apoplexy in this part of the brain is also of 



236 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

rare occurrence. Sometimes, however, in fracture of the 
spinal column near its articulation with the skull, particles 
of bone are driven into the medulla oblongata, causing 
instant death. 1 

328. The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, is continuous 
with the medulla oblongata, and, extending downwards, 
fills the cavity of the spinal canal in the vertebral column. 
It is a somewhat cylindrical mass of nerve tissue, and is 
fissured in front and behind. It becomes enlarged in the 
cervical and lumbar regions, at the points where the 
nerves supplying the upper and lower extremities are 
given off, and its lower end sends out prolongations 
through the sacrum, which, from their fancied resemblance 
to the hairs of a horse's tail, are called the cauda equina. 
It is composed of a central mass of gray matter, extend- 
ing nearly its entire length, and surrounded by longitudi- 
nal bundles of nerve filaments, the whole being enclosed 
by the membranes (the dura mater, etc.) before described. 
The gray matter of the spinal cord, as shown in a trans- 
verse section, is arranged somewhat like a double crescent 
united by a band of gray matter. The respective extremi- 
ties of these united crescents are called anterior and pos- 
terior horns. Opposite them, at regular intervals, filaments 
of the spinal nerves emerge from the cord. The white 
matter of the cord lying between the posterior horns and 
posterior fissure, constitutes the right and left posterior 
columns ; and that between the posterior horns and ante- 
rior horns, the right and left lateral columns; that between 

1 Instantaneous death results also from a "broken neck," or from injury to 
the medulla oblongata without the neck being broken, as when the atlas is 
dislocated by the striking of the head upon the bed of a stream in diving from 
a height into shallow water, a proceeding always attended with danger. Occa- 
sionally animals fall dead from sudden injury to the vital knot. For instance, 
a clumsy shanghai rooster, in full pursuit of another, died suddenly from fall- 
ing over a wooden pail, striking, in the fall, the back of his head. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



237 




the anterior horns and anterior fissure, the anterior col- 
umns. 1 These columns are connected with filaments of 
the spinal nerves, and thus the spinal cord is a conducting 
medium as well as a nerve centre. The posterior col- 
umns of the spinal cord convey sensory impressions to the 
cerebrum, and the antero-lateral columns convey motor 
impulses from the cerebrum. 
Injury to the spinal cord will 
produce paralysis of the parts 
below, through the spinal nerves. 
Such injuries generally occur 
when one or more of the verte- 
brae are broken by falls, blows, 
etc. When the spinal column is 
fractured at its middle, the lower 
extremities are paralyzed, the 
upper remaining unaffected. 2 
When the injury is in the neck 
region, the upper extremities are 
also paralyzed, for the cord is 
damaged above the point at 
which the nerves distributed to them are given off. Some- 
times injuries to the spine result in loss of power or 
sensation only ; but, if severe, the parts below are deprived 
of both sensation and voluntary motion. 

329. The spinal nerves consist of thirty-one symmet- 
rical pairs of nerves, which are connected with the spinal 
cord by so-called roots. Each nerve has an anterior and a 



Fig. 71. 
Segment of the spinal cord. — 1, an- 
terior fissure; 2, posterior fissure ; 
3, posterior horns ; 5, anterior 
column; 6, lateral column; 7, pos- 
terior column ; 8, anterior commis- 
sure; 9, anterior horns of gray 
matter ; 12, anterior root of a spinal 
nerve ; 13, posterior root ; 14, gan- 
glion on posterior root; 15, 6pinal 
nerve formed by the union of the 
two roots. 



1 "Called columns because the nerve fibres composing them run for the 
most part in a longitudinal direction." Recent investigations seem to show 
that the columns are more intricate than has been believed, and admit of fur- 
ther division and subdivision. 

2 Such paralysis is called paraplegia, while that which results in one 
side of the body from injury to one cerebral hemisphere is known as hem- 
iplegia. 



238 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

posterior root. The posterior roots (upon each of which 
is a ganglion), with their respective nerves, are known as 
sensory roots and nerves, because they convey sensations ; 
while the anterior roots, with their nerves, are the motor 
roots and nerves, because they convey motor impulses. 
Just beyond or outside of their junction with their respec- 
tive roots, the motor and sensitive filaments are enclosed 
in the same sheath, but their functions always remain dis- 
tinct. The spinal nerves are mainly distributed to the 
skin and muscles upon the corresponding sides of the 
body, and convey nervous force and impressions to the 
trunk and the extremities. 

330. Sensory impressions, such as the perception of 
heat and cold, or of the size, consistency, location, and 
character of objects, are conveyed by the sensory nerve 
fibres of the skin and other parts of the body to the sen- 
sory roots of spinal nerves, and by them to the gray mat- 
ter of the cord, or to the posterior columns of the oppo- 
site side of the spinal cord, to be transmitted by them to 
the cerebrum. 1 ' We become conscious of sensations only 
ivhen they are thus carried to the brain. In proportion, 
however, as an object becomes painful, whether by reason 
of its great heat, pressure, or otherwise, the sensory nerves 
lose their power of enabling us to perceive the ordinary 
properties of the object, and we become aware only of 
suffering. An injury to a sensitive nerve in any part of 
its course is not felt at the point of injury, but where 
impressions are ordinarily felt, — at the terminal points of 
the nerve filaments. This fact explains why it is, when 
the ulnar nerve, or " funny bone," at the elbow is struck 
sharply, numbness or pain is referred to the outer side of 

1 Sensory nerves are sometimes called afferent nerves; and motor nerves, 
the efferent nerves. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



239 



the hand and the little finger, which parts are supplied by 
this nerve. Oftentimes, after a limb has been amputated, 
the patient claims that he suffers pain in the part removed, 
or that his toes or fingers, as the case may be, are being 
tampered with. The cause of this distress is generally 
found to be some irritation of the nerve in the wound. 
When the force of the nervous current is diminished in 
sensory and motor nerves by pressure, as when one leg is 




Fig. 72. (Westbrook.) 

A diagram to represent the passage of the nerve fibres from the spinal cord upward to 
the different parts of the brain, and some of the more important ganglionic masses 
with which they are associated. — 1. The gray matter of the cerebral convolutions. 
2. The white matter of the interior of the cerebrum, through which the fibres pass 
on their way to the convolutions. 3. The corpus striatum , or anterior basal ganglion ; 
the fibres passing through it run in three principal directions: viz., to the anterior, 
middle, and posterior regions of the cerebrum ; they are represented by the three 
continuous lines. 4. The space between the two basal ganglia, through which fibres 
pass directly from below upwards; these fibres appear in the cerebrum as broken 
lines, running toward the three principal regions. 5. The optic thalamus, or pos- 
terior basal ganglion, with fibres (represented by clotted lines) traversing it on their 
way from below upward. 6. The lions Varolii, made up of horizontal fibres which 
cross from one side of the cerebellum to the other. 7. Corpora quadrigemina, from 
which the optic nerves, in part, take their origin. 8. The cerebellum, with a gangli- 
onic mass in its interior, and fibres passing into it from the brain above and medulla 
oblongata below (9). 10. The dark convoluted line indicates the ganglionic matter 
of the spinal cord reaching up into the medulla oblongata and pons Varolii. 

kept crossed over the other, in a constrained position for a 
length of time, or the arm is lain upon in sleep, temporary 
numbness of the limb and loss of motion results, and the 
part is said to be asleep. Attempts to move either arm 
or leg under the circumstances will, for a moment or two, 
prove futile, as the motor nerves supplying these extremi- 



240 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

ties cannot act in obedience to the orders of the brain, 
until they have regained their tone. On the other hand, 
the irritation of a motor nerve in its course results in 
motion of the part to which its filaments are distributed, 
while a severe injury produces loss of motion. 

331. The production of motion is a peculiar function of 
muscular tissue. Motor impulses for the voluntary mus- 
cles originate, for the most part, in the gray matter of the 
cerebro-spinal nervous system. 1 From the cerebral gray 
matter they are carried by motor nerve filaments to the 
anterior columns of the cord upon the same side of the 
body, or to the antero-posterior columns on the opposite 
side, and to the motor nerves communicating with these 
columns. 2 From the gray matter of the cord, motor power 
passes out through the anterior horns, to be distributed by 
the motor nerves in connection with them. Only those 
motions can be considered as voluntary which emanate from 
the brain. 

332. Of the cranial nerves (Fig. 70) there are twelve 
sets, numbered from one to twelve, in the order in which 
they arise from the base of the brain, the enumeration 
beginning at the front of the cerebrum and continuing 
backwards. These nerves, with the exception of 
those distributed to the interior of the nose, eye, and ear 
(termed nerves of special sense), are either motor or sensi- 
tive, or are mixed nerves, and convey both sensation and 
motion. The cranial nerves which concern us at the 
present time may be briefly described as follows. 

1 The involuntary muscles are moved through the sympathetic system of 
nerves. 

2 The nerve filaments passing to and from the cortex, or enveloping mass of 
gray matter of the cerebrum, for the most part pass through ganglia at the 
base of the cerebrum. Of these, the optic thalami (one in each hemisphere) 
are believed to be sensory centres, and the corpora striata (one in each hemis- 
phere), motor centres. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 241 

333. The fifth pair of nerves are the great sensitive 
nerves of the face and the side of the head. They pos- 
sess also motor fibres (derived from distinct roots) which 
are distributed to the muscles of mastication. Each of 
the nerves of this pair has three main trunks. The upper 
one passes from the cranial cavity into the orbital cavity, 1 
sending filaments to the eye and adjacent parts, then out 
through a notched opening in the skull underneath the 
eyebrow, towards its inner side, 2 and is distributed to the 
forehead and top of the head. The second branch, after 
leaving the cranial cavity, runs along the floor of the 
orbit, giving off branches to the upper teeth, gums, to the 
mucous membrane of upper jaw, etc., and then out of an 
opening just below the front lower edge of the orbit, and 
is distributed to the middle portion of the face, the nose, 
cheeks, and upper lip. The third branch, with which the 
motor nerve filaments are associated, supplies mainly sensi- 
tive fibres to the mucous membrane of the cheeks, lips, and 
front part of the tongue, and to the lower teeth, and emerges 
at an opening in the front part of the lower jaw, to be dis- 
tributed to the lower lip, chin, and adjacent parts. (Fig. 73.) 
Irritation of this nerve by disease or other cause produces 
exquisite pain, as in neuralgia, headache, or toothache. 3 

334. The facial or seventh pair of nerves are the great 
motor nerves of the face, the nerves of expression, by 
which the features are animated by various movements, in 
response to the emotions. Each nerve of the pair emerges 
from the skull near the external opening of each ear, and 
is distributed to the muscles of the face. When these 
nerves are irritated or diseased, convulsive twitchings of 

1 The cavity in which the eye rests. 

2 Pressure at this point, or where the other two branches emerge, is attended 
by sensitiveness. 

3 Neuralgia, i.e., pain in a nerve. 



•242 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



the face and unusual expressions result. If the injury is 
confined to the nerve of one side of the face, only the 
facial movements upon that side will be disturbed or made 
impossible. 




Fig. 73. 
Superficial branches of the seventh and the fifth pair of cranial nerves. 



335. The pneumogastric or tenth pair of nerves are 
mixed nerves. Their distribution is wider than that of 
any nerves in the body, and their influence greater, for 
they supply the larynx, pharynx, heart, and lungs, the 
stomach, intestines, liver, and other abdominal organs with 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



243 



sensibility and motion, and are connected at various points 
with the sympathetic system of nerves. 

336. The sympathetic system 
of nerves, or the great sympa- 
thetic nerve, as it is sometimes 
called, consists of a double chain 
of ganglia on the sides of the 
spinal column ; also of scattered 
ganglia in the head, neck, chest, 
and abdomen. These ganglia 
are connected with each other by 
filaments, and with the cerebro- 
spinal nervous system, b}^ motor 
and sensitive fibres. From them 
numerous and very delicate 
fibres are distributed chiefly to 
the alimentary canal and its 
appendages, the heart, blood- 
vessels, and certain other or- 
gans. 1 

At various points the sympa- 
thetic nerves, with their ganglia, 
form about certain large arteries 
matted nets, or " plexuses." A 
typical one is the solar plexus 
so called because its radiating 
nerves branch out like the solar 

rays. This is situated in the Fig. 74. (Dalton.) 

abdomen, some of its filaments l ^ t ?gSSFE*Z2 
accompanying the branches of iSgffSt.BB&VSS-i 
the aorta distributed to the t FTi&? """""^ ; 5 '"° m " 




1 These nerves, distributed to the blood-vessels, are known as vasomotor 
nerves, and the continuous muscular action they furnish as the "tone" or 
the " tonic contraction" of the arteries. 



244 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



CN 



DN 




DN 



Fig. 75. 
Vertical section of body, showing sympathetic nerves and ganglia of right side, 
and their connection with the cerebro-spinal nerves. — Cerebrospinal system : 
ON, cervical nerves ; B, nerves distributed to the arm; DN, dorsal nerves; 
SN, saccral nerves, some of which are distributed to the leg; PN, pneumogas- 
tric nerve. Sympathetic system: P, plexus in the head ; PP, pharyngeal plexus ; 
CP, cardiac plexus; OP, oesophegeal plexus; SoP, solar plexus; AP, aortic 
plexus; MP, mesenteric plexus; SP, saccral plexus; G, some of the ganglia of 
the sympathetic system. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 245 

stomach, intestine, spleen, pancreas, liver, and other organs. 
An injury to this plexus, as by a severe blow upon the 
abdomen, is likely to result in sudden death. When per- 
sons are said to die of "concussion" or "shock," death 
results from a severe disturbance of the sympathetic 
system. Soldiers have been known to die suddenly, 
without any mark of injury being found upon their bod- 
ies, from the passage very near them of cannon balls. 
Squirrels and other small game are sometimes killed by 
good huntsmen by bullets fired close to the head. Fish, 
especially pike, have been stunned or killed when within 
a few inches of the surface of the water, by a sharp blow 
struck upon the water just above them, or by the close 
contact of a pistol ball. 

337. The sympathetic system, as has been said, con- 
trols, for the most part, the involuntary processes, such as 
circulation, respiration, and digestion, so that ordinarily 
in health we do not realize we have a heart, lungs, and 
stomach, so quietly does the vital machinery work. Yet, 
owing to the connection of the sympathetic with the 
cerebro-spinal nerves, the functions of the internal organs 
may be disarranged by apparently slight causes. For 
example, emotional disturbances, such as terror and fear, 
will contract the arterioles, and thus cause paleness, while 
shame and joy will cause blushing by the dilation of these 
vessels. Even unpleasant sounds, odors, or events, will 
sometimes interfere with digestion, the action of the heart, 
and the secretion of tears. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What functions or processes may be considered as peculiar to animals? 

2. What is meant by the irritability of organs, and to what is it due? 

3. What is the object of the nervous system, and to what may it be 

compared ? 



24(5 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

4. What two kinds of nervous tissue are there? Which is the more 

abundant? 

5. Where is each located ? 

6. What are nerve filaments ? nerves? the neurilemma? the function 

of nerves? 

7. Describe the gray matter ; the ganglia, and their function. 

8. What three divisions has the brain ? How are the brain and 

spinal cord divided longitudinally? 

9. Name and describe the three coverings of the brain and spinal cord. 

10. On what several things does the working capacity of the brain 

depend ? 

11. Describe the cerebrum and its hemispheres. What do the convo- 

lutions indicate? 

12. What relation have the hemispheres with each other and with 

the body? 

13. What is the office of the cerebrum ? of memory ? 

14. What effect has mental exercise upon the cerebral substance? 

What follows from this ? 

15. Describe the cerebellum and its function. The medulla oblongata. 

16. Why is the medulla oblongata a very important part of the brain ? 

How is it protected ? 

17. Describe the spinal cord. Which parts convey sensations ? which 

motor impulses ? 

18. What are the spinal nerves ? Which of their roots convey sensa- 

tions ? which motor impulses ? 

19. How are sensations conveyed to the brain? 

20. How is motion produced ? where originated ? How is the motor 

impulse transmitted ? 

21. What is the effect of irritating nerves midway in their course ? 

22. What follows the division of nerves or of the spinal cord? 

23. What are the cranial nerves? Whence do they issue? How 

many are there ? 

24. How many and what branches has the fifth pair? What causes 

toothache? 

25. What pair constitutes the facial nerves ? What follows their use ? 

their injury? 

26. Describe the tenth or pneumogastric nerve. 

27. Describe the sympathetic system, and its ganglia and plexuses. 

28. Over what processes does this system preside? What is its nor- 

mal action ? What may ensue from a sudden shock to a plexus ? 



CHAPTER XV. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM, Continued. — NERVE 
FORCE. 

338. The peculiar power transmitted by the nerves 
is known as nerve force. 1 In character and rapidity of 
movement it resembles the electric current. 2 So rapid 
is the transmission of nerve force that it seems almost 
instantaneous. Dr. Flint states that " the rate of conduc- 
tion in the human subject is essentially the same in the 
motor and sensory nerves, being, according to the most 
reliable estimates, about one hundred and eleven feet per 
second." 3 

339. Nerve force is put in motion by stimuli, within or 
without the body, such, for example, as food, waves of 
light and sound, the emotions, and the applications of 
electricity and other agents, and, when aroused, manifests 
itself in voluntary and involuntary functions, and in the 
various motions and sensations incident to the body. 

1 The ancients believed that nerve force was a fluid, and hence called it 
" the nervous fluid." 

2 The electric shocks furnished by the electric eel, when handled, emanate 
from organs especially adapted to the purpose, which organs are under the 
control of the nervous system. 

3 Some estimates give the rate in motor nerves at about 250 feet per second. 
An act of volition is said to require ^yth of a second ; a simple distinction or 
recognition of an impression, -jVth of a second. 

" In the case of the ear, when the sound attended to is that of two electrical 
sparks quickly succeeding each other, it can be perceived that there are two, 
and that one is earlier than the other, when it precedes it by no more than 
0.002 sec." — Physiology . Powers. 



248 NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE. 

Certain parts of the body, by reason of their function, 
possess extreme excitability, and nerve force is aroused to 
great intensity by very slight causes. A minute particle 
of thread lodging in the larynx, by its irritation, induces, 
in the first place, coughing, then contraction of the laryn- 
geal muscles to effect its expulsion. If the offending 
object is not readily expelled, other muscles, such as the 
diaphragm and the chest muscles of respiration, begin to 
act in concert, and it may be that before the effort at 
expulsion is effectual, many of the muscles of the entire 
body have united in the effort to get rid of the insignific- 
ant particle. The sufferer meanwhile becomes " black 
in the face " and exhausted from the venous congestion 
caused by the powerful contraction of all these muscles. 

340. Sometimes nerve force is said to be transferred ; 
i.e., pain or some other kind of sensation is felt in an 
altogether different part from that where the stimulus 
really is ; as, for example, in disease of the hip joint, pain 
in the knee is a common sign, while at the hip it is com- 
paratively rare. So, too, when the lungs are irritated, 
the impression is transferred to the nerves of the larynx, 
and coughing results. Again, the sun's light falling 
strongly upon the eye, excites tickling in the nose and 
sneezing. 

341. So called nervous actions result, either from the 
direct transmission of nerve force by motor and sensory 
nerves to and from nerve centres, or by special nerves 
through the special organs of sight, hearing, taste, and 
smell, or from the reflection from one set of nerves to 
another, through a nerve centre. An impression conveyed 
to a nerve centre by a sensory nerve, and from thence 
reflected to the motor nerve, results in muscular move- 
ment or secretion, which are said to be the effect of reflex 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE. 249 

action. For the performance of reflex action it is essential 
that the continuity of the sensory nerve be intact between 
the terminal point irritated and the nerve centre, that the 
nerve centre be healthy and uninjured, and that the con- 
tinuity of the motor nerve be intact from the nerve centre 
to the glands or muscles acted upon. 

342. Reflex action occurs frequently in the body and 
in both divisions of the nervous system. For the most 
part it is performed without the knowledge of the indi- 
vidual, but when it occurs through the brain it becomes 
appreciable, and may even be voluntarily aided. For 
example, the act of swallowing is mainly the result of an 
unconscious reflex action by the mere contact of sub- 
stances with the pharynx. But if an irritant, such as the 
end of a feather or of a finger be thrust into the throat, 
involuntary efforts at expulsion are made, and these may 
be aided by the voluntary efforts of the individual. The 
reflex action of the medulla, by which ordinary respiration 
is carried on, is generally automatic, but, when the breath- 
ing air becomes vitiated so that we experience discomfort, 
or when nervous force is irregularly and insufficiently sup- 
plied to the lungs, we become conscious of forced and 
irregular breathing, and may lend voluntary assistance to 
the automatic efforts. The act of winking is the result of 
a reflex action, and occurs generally without our knowl- 
edge, but may also be performed at will. 

343. There are certain reflex actions effected through 
the cerebro-spinal nerves, in conjunction with those of the 
sympathetic system, of which we are conscious, but over 
which we have ordinarily no control. Of the results of 
these may be mentioned coughing, vomiting, the secretion 
of tears from irritation of the eyes by dust, etc., blushing 
or paleness as the result of emotions, the closure of the 



250 NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE. 

eyelids at a sudden flash of light, and a grimace on sud- 
denly inhaling an unpleasant odor. 1 

344. The reflex actions of the sympathetic system, i.e., 
those exerted through the sympathetic nerves and their 
ganglia, we are not even conscious of, except in some dis- 
eased conditions of the body. Such actions result in 
secretion, excretion, absorption, peristaltic movements, the 
contraction and dilatation of the pupil of the eye in regu- 
lating the admission of light, and the variations from time 
to time in the volume and rapidity of the blood current 
in the numberless capillaries of the body. 

345. Reflex actions through the spinal cord afford good 
examples of involuntary muscular actions unconsciously 
performed. Such a reflex action, as Dalton states it, is 
" merely the transfer of a sensory impression through the 
gray matter of the cord to a motor nerve." Hence, if the 
spinal cord be severed at any point, though the power of 
voluntary motion is at once lost in all parts below that 
point, i.e., paralysis .occurs; yet, if the reflex activity of 
the spinal cord below the severed point remains intact, 
and the foot be tickled, the foot and leg will be hastily 
drawn away from the irritation. In the same way a hand 
or foot, accidentally coming in contact with a hot sub- 
stance, is instantly snatched away before the brain has had 
time to take cognizance of the danger. The instinctive 
efforts made to hold or regain one's footing, when jostled 
in a crowded vehicle or slipping upon the pavement, are 
also clue to like reflex impulses. If the spinal cord is 

1 Sometimes pressure upon the upper lip will prevent sneezing, and diver- 
sion of the mind by new scenes or objects will stop an irritating cough, oi 
even prevent vomiting. A surgeon, after taking an active emetic, was almost 
immediately called upon to perform an important surgical operation. Not till 
after the operation was performed and the anxiety was over did the emetic 
take effect. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE- 251 

inflamed, or is under the influence of strychnine, or any 
other stimulating substance, the sensitiveness of the gray 
matter of the cord to impressions is greatly increased. In 
such instances, convulsions readily occur by contact of 
the body with a draught of air, or by the noise caused by 
the sudden shutting of a door. In cold-blooded animals 
the reflex activity of the cord remains for a considerable 
length of time, even after the brain has been removed 
and the animal is practically dead. A decapitated frog 
will jump in a natural manner when the feet are pinched 
or irritated. 

346. The voluntary faculties may be educated to act 
in a sort of reflex manner. Actions, which at first are 
purely voluntary and consciously performed, may, by fre- 
quent repetition, become habitual and be apparently un- 
consciously performed. They have been called artificial 
reflex actions, and are common. The expert pianist plays 
the most intricate music, without any apparent thought 
upon his part as to how his fingers are to move, and it is a 
common experience for persons to walk, eat, and even 
read in an automatic manner, while their thoughts are 
abstracted on other matters. 1 Children, hj imitating the 
odd habits or actions of others, sometimes acquire similar 
habits which may be very difficult for them to eradicate. 2 

1 It is said that a soldier, while carrying a howl of soup, suddenly dropped 
it on hearing some one call " attention," so accustomed was he at that word of 
command to stand erect with his hands hy his sides. Convalescing soldiers 
in military hospitals have heen known to jump out of warm heds and stand 
erect at hearing the word " attention " shouted in through the door by a would- 
be joker. 

A gentleman, accustomed to eat apples while reading, often reached out his 
hand for an apple, while his thoughts were busy on the book. One evening a 
friend, unperceived, added a number of apples to those already in the dish; 
but the reader unconsciously ate apple after apple, until all were gone. 

2 The unconscious performance of ordinarily conscious actions has been 
termed "unconscious cerebration." 



252 NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE. 

347. Sometimes during sleep, actions such, as walking 
and writing, or even intellectual efforts of a high order, 
are performed. Sleep-walkers or somnambulists have 
been found carefully balancing themselves on the ridges 
of house-tops, or engaged in other perilous feats. To 
awaken them suddenly, and so disarrange the nervous 
control of the muscular movements, may prove dangerous. 

348. In health, the reflex actions have, for the most 
part, a distinct purpose, in some way related to the well- 
being of the body, and it is only in some disordered or 
diseased condition of the economy that we appreciate any 
irregularity or want of harmonious nervous action. Hence 
it is that the healthy, robust man or woman often fails to 
have any sympathy with the " ailing " persons subject to 
irregular reflex nervous actions, which cause pain, uneasi- 
ness, nausea, and discomfort. A strong will may more or 
less control many of these actions, and a weak one will be 
more or less controlled by them. For example, the reflex 
action of crying out when in pain is sometimes prevented 
by biting the tongue, clenching the teeth, or by holding 
some object very tightly. So, too, the yielding to the sen- 
sation of tickling, or to the involuntary closing of the 
eyes when a blow is aimed at the head, may, in a similar 
way, be prevented. But Mr. Darwin gives a striking 
example of an instinctive reflex act overriding a very 
strong effort of the will. " He placed his face against the 
glass of the cobra's cage in the reptile house of the Zoolog- 
ical Gardens, and though, of course, thoroughly convinced 
of his perfect security, could not, by any effort of the 
will, prevent himself from starting back when the snake 
struck with fury at the glass." In young children the 
nervous system is delicate and very susceptible to impres- 
sions. Reflex actions are especially frequent and some- 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE. 253 

times attended with danger, especially in children of 
excitable temperaments, and who have a tendency, by in- 
heritance or otherwise, to nervous disorders. In such 
children, indigestible food, dentition, fright, etc., may cause 
convulsions, epilepsy, or even death. 

349. The quantity of nerve force and the amount of ner- 
vous energy which each person possesses cannot be definitely 
stated. Most individuals have more than is required for 
the ordinary necessities of life. The surplus constitutes 
a reserve force which is stored away for emergencies. In 
times of trial, feeble and apparently inefficient persons 
sometimes display more " nerve " and have greater ner- 
vous energy than persons whose ordinary physical powers 
are much stronger ; while, on the other hand, persons of 
robust appearance may prove almost valueless on such 
occasions. Some persons, especially those who are not in 
robust health, are particularly susceptible to nervous im- 
pressions, and in them the reserve nervous force is liable 
to be recklessly drawn upon. Even persons of strong 
physical and mental powers, who do not readily succumb 
to various forms of dissipation, and who freely indulge in 
excessive pedestrian exercises, over-eating and drinking, 
late hours, etc., may be unduly taxing their reserve supply 
of nervous force, while believing that they are too strong 
and well to be affected by the drain. But the persistent 
overtaxing of our powers, whether mental or physical, will 
sooner or later exhaust the nervous system, and reduce us 
to mental or physical bankruptcy. («.) 

350. Disease, the excessive concentration of the thoughts 
upon one's self by vain and selfish persons, excessive men- 
tal or physical work, and, above all, worry, especially if 
associated with lack of rest, of pure air and suitable food, 
create a disturbance or perversion of nerve force, even in 



254 NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE. 

those who are considered strong, mentally and physi- 
cally. («.) Such perversion produces a variety of so-called 
nervous disorders, such as nervous prostration, nervous 
exhaustion, nerve tire, and hysteria, (6.) attended by over- 
sensitiveness of various parts of the body, or a numbness 
or diminished sensitiveness, increased irritability of the 
emotions, a tendency to spasms of voluntary and involun- 
tary muscles, and to sudden congestions of blood. 

351. Many of the nervous disturbances, to which all 
are more or less liable, can be warded off by a proper 
development of the nervous system, and the consequent 
strengthening of nerve force and energy. Such a de- 
velopment is therefore an important factor of health, and 
may be attained by systematic and proper exercise of 
the nervous system, just as muscles and other organs are 
developed by regular and appropriate exercise. Exercise, 
however, which is improperly adapted to the age, health, 
and condition of the individual, results in a loss of nerve 
power. Like other portions of the body, the nervous sys- 
tem needs for its maintenance and health sufficient and 
wholesome food, adequate exercise and rest, and all other 
hygienic necessities. Mental labor in excess is, contrary 
to the belief of some persons, as exhausting as excessive 
physical labor, and cannot, as a rule, be pursued for so 
long a time. The amount of nervous energy which each 
person should expend depends upon the capacity of the 
individual. No person, however, should work up to the 
full measure of his ability. Moderate labor, regularly 
and systematically pursued, will accomplish more than 
any amount of spasmodic effort, and will not be attended 
with such danger to the system. As far as possible, there- 
fore, regular mental and nervous work should supersede 
irregular work, and monotonous labor be replaced by 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. — NERVOUS FORCE. 255 

varied exertion, if we are to gain and maintain a " sound 
mind in a sound body." Gradually increasing and sys- 
tematic mental Avork, proportionate to the health and 
nervous power, does not pull down the average man. (a.) 
It is the spasmodic overwork in the struggle for wealth 
or fame, the perplexities which result from suddenly 
assuming duties one is not capable of performing without 
a course of preparatory training, that do the mischief. 
The worry which all such work excites is a bar to sound 
mental and nervous health, and is oftentimes the factor 
which turns sanity into insanity. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Describe nerve force and its rapidity. 

2. How is it aroused ? 

3. What is meant by the transf errence of nerve force ? 

4. By what forms of transmission of nerve force are nervous actions 

rendered possible ? 

5. What is reflex action, and what is essential for its performance ? 

6. When are reflex actions recognized by the person in whom they 

occur ? 

7. Give some examples of reflex actions of which we are conscious, 

but over which we have little or no control. 

8. Describe the reflex actions of the sympathetic nervous system ; 

of the spinal cord. 

9. What is meant by artificial reflex actions? 

10. What is the difference between reflex actions hi health and disease? 

11. What is said as to the quantity of nerve force and nervous energy 

which each person possesses ? 

12. How may nerve force be abused? 

13. How can mental and nervous health be best produced and main- 

tained ? 



256 



ANALYSIS. 



ANALYSIS OF CHAPTERS FOURTEEN AND FIFTEEN. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
T. Anatomy. 



Divisions 



Structure 



The cerebro spinal "J Brai » a » d PP 1 ™ 1 cord > 

with their nerves. 

Certain ganglia and 
nerves. 



I Sympathetic or ganglionic . . •] 

\ 



White nervous matter 



Nerves. 
Gray nervous matter, — Cells, etc. 



Nerve filaments or fibres. 



Arrangement I Gan S lia (including brain). 

\ Nerves, single and combined in columns. 

f Coverings of Brain. 
Protection . . •< " Spinal cord. 

" Nerves. 



i 



Nutrition, or blood supply. 



II. Physiology. 

f To furnish nervous irritability. 
Function J -^° provide sensation, motion, etc. 

' 1 To harmonize all the processes and movements of the 
[ body. 

f How and where aroused. 

< How transmitted. 

Effects of. 



The agent, — Nerve force 



III. Hygiene. 

Proper Stimulation. 
" Nourishment. 
" Rest. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

SENSATIONS. — THE SENSES: TOUCH, 
TASTE, AND SMELL. 

352. The mind, by means of sensations, obtains a 
knowledge, first, of the condition of the various parts of 
the body ; and second, of external objects and phenomena. 
The first-named class may be termed common sensations; 
the second, the special sensations or the senses. Under the 
first head are those which cannot be distinctly localized, 
such as fatigue, discomfort, and faintness, and also such 
sensations as itching, creeping, tickling, aching, and 
burning. Tactile sensation, or that obtained by " con- 
tact,'' constitutes what is commonly known as the sense 
of touch. The line of demarcation between many of the 
common sensations and this sense is not a clear one. In 
fact, as Kirke x says, though " touch is usually classed with 
the special senses ... it forms the connecting link be- 
tween the general and special sensations"; for the sensa- 
tions produced by stimulation of the nerves of the skin 
and of certain portions of the mucous membrane are 
numerous. Of these may be named the sensations of 
ordinary touch, of weight, heat, cold, and tickling, and, if 
the stimulation is strong, of pain. Some parts of the 
skin are more sensitive to certain impressions than to 
others, and at times one sensation in a part is experienced 
after others are lost. Pain is probably more easily induced 
in the face than elsewhere. The cheeks and ears seem to be 
more sensitive to the changes of atmospheric temperature 

1 Handbook of Physiology. 



258 SENSATIONS. 

than other parts of the face. The soles of the feet, the 
knees, and the armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling. 
The power of distinguishing heat and cold may be lost in 
a part, as in paralysis, and yet the sensations of touch and 
pain remain ; or pain may be prevented by anaesthetics 
before the sensation of touch disappears. 

353. The sensation of weight, resistance, etc., is called 
by some physiologists the muscular sense, from the belief 
that to a great extent it is dependent upon the muscular 
nerves, and is, therefore, a peculiar property of muscles. 
It is most developed in those parts of the body where the 
tactile sensibility is the keenest, and is probably due in 
part to the relative amount of the pressure of bodies upon 
those parts, and also to the relative amount of nervous 
and muscular energy expended in sustaining or resisting 
bodies. It is an aid in enabling us to appreciate the "resis- 
tance, immobility, and elasticity of substances that are 
grasped, or on which Ave tread, or which by their weight 
are opposed to the exertion of muscular power." 1 Habit 
and education have a great deal to do with this sensation. 
It is astonishing with what accuracy experts will detect a 
departure from the standard weight in handling barrels of 
flour and other packages, including even such light arti- 
cles as coins. 

354. Fortunately, in health, the application of stimuli, 
beyond what may be considered in each individual the 
natural limit of stimulation, is attended by discomfort or 
pain. Tickling, for example, at first may not be unpleas- 
ant, but if persisted in, is liable to become exceedingly 
disagreeable and painful, and may be carried to such a 
point as to become dangerous. " The muscles, though 
they are not very sensitive organs to ordinary stimuli, 

1 Text-book of Physiology. Flint. 



THE SENSES — TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 259 

yet, when contracted spasmodically, occasion severe pain. 
They ache when fatigued, and pain is felt when they are 
contused or cut." Sunlight, too, so necessary for health 
and comfort, if intense and shining into one's eyes, will 
produce pain and blindness. Long-continued and high- 
pitched sounds also fail at length to be appreciated as 
sounds, and produce only painful sensations. This sensi- 
bility to pain guards us from many and great dangers. 
Those parts of the body which are the most subject to 
injury are supplied with nerves in the largest quantity, 
and are most sensitive. A cut into the skin, or the applica- 
tion to it of heat, cold, or other irritant, ordinarily causes 
pain ; but the structures beneath the skin are comparatively 
insensitive. 1 The eye, also, so necessary to a pleasurable 
existence, is abundantly supplied with nerves of sensation. 

355. Were it not for this sensibility to pain, important 
parts of the body might be irreparably injured with- 
out the knowledge of the individual. Thus, the skin 
might be almost boiled by the hot water of a bath, or 
roasted by exposure to a hot fire, or the eye might become 
intensely inflamed by long exposure to bright sunlight, or 
by the continuance therein of foreign particles which have 
lodged upon the surface of the ball. This sensibility 
undoubtedly differs in degree in men and animals. 2 In 
man it probably bears some relation to the development 
of the intellect. It is a matter of common observation 
among physicians and surgeons, that some persons suffer 
more than others who are afflicted with the same diseases 
or injuries. 

1 In a surgical operation, cutting through the skin is the most painful step, 
but this pain is very frequently diminished or avoided by the application of 
cold to the part, by means of ether spray or other quickly evaporating material. 

2 " Blooded " horses are much more sensitive and more keenly alive to pain 
than the average dray or work horse. 



260 SENSATIONS. 

356. The special sensations, or the senses, are generally 
spoken of as five in number ; viz., touch, taste, smell, sight, 
and hearing. 1 All of the organs of special sense are, 
however, but the working tools of the brain. Hence, 
to perform their wonderful work aright, not only should 
they be perfect in structure, but the brain also, and the 
special nerves which connect these organs with the brain, 
should be in an alert and healthy condition, 2 otherwise it 
may be that we shall neither hear with the ears, nor see 
with the eyes, nor taste with the tongue, nor handle with 
the hands. During deep sleep, for example, impressions 
of sound may be presented to the ear, or of chilliness to 
the skin, and they will not be perceived. During the deep 
sleep produced by anaesthetics, great surgical operations 
are performed without the knowledge of the individ- 
ual operated upon. But when the sleep so produced is 
not profound, the various steps of an operation may be 
recognized and afterwards remembered, though the ability 
to move and the perception of pain may be absent. 

357. It is to be especially noted, first, that each nerve 
of sense is only capable of performing the function de- 
signed for it. The nerve of sight does not enable us to 
hear, and the nerve of smell only enables us to appreciate 
odors; second, cultivation of the senses, especially if 
begun in early life, will develop their usefulness, but the 
training may be carried to the extent of making them 

1 Some physiologists, believing that the several sensations produced by- 
stimulation of the cutaneous nerves, and of those of certain portions of the 
raucous membrane, are effected through distinct sets of nerve fibres, enumerate 
as among the senses the sense of pressure, of temperature, of pain, etc. Others 
claim that all the senses are but modifications of the sense of touch. 

2 As sight, hearing, and touch seem to be most concerned with the wants of 
the intellect, they are sometimes spoken of as the intellectual senses ; while 
taste and smell, being intimately connected with nutrition, are known as the 
corporeal senses. 



THE SENSES — TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 261 

sources of misery. Certain persons are painfully con- 
scious of the slightest discord; others almost instantane- 
ously detect, with a feeling of disgust, the inharmonious 
blending of tints which, to the average person, is a har- 
monious one; others still are made uncomfortable by an 
odor which is perceptible to no one but themselves. Cul- 
tivation furnishes the accurate hearing of the educated 
musician, the keen eyesight of the reliable pilot, engineer, 
and expert microscopist, and the accurate touch of the 
blind. 

358. That provision by which we appreciate by actual 
contact the size, form, and character of the surface of 
objects, is the sense of touch, and is most acute where the 
tactile corpuscles are most numerous, as in the tip of the 
tongue, the under surface of the ends of the fingers, and 
the palms of the hands. It is least acute on the middle 
of the back. 1 

359. The human hands, with their long flexible 
fingers and very adjustable thumbs, with their beautiful 
adaptation to the wants of the whole upper extremity, 
and with their average of 20,000 papillae to each square 
inch of surface, are the parts of the body most usually 
employed in the exercise of the sense of touch. 2 The sen- 
sitive tips of the fingers, protected though they be by the 
epidermis, nails, and cushions of fat, enable us to feel accu- 

1 The delicacy of the tactile sensation may be measured by lightly applying 
at one time the two points of a pair of compasses to any part of the integu- 
ment, the eyes being closed. In proportion as the parts tested are sensitive 
will the two points be perceived as two points when brought very close together. 
In this way it has been ascertained that the palmar surfaces of fingers and 
hands are more sensitive than the dorsal surfaces, the front of the body than 
the rear. 

2 In the cat and seal, for example, feeling is in part effected through the 
long bristles upon the lips, which are connected at their bases with nerve papil- 
lae. In some monkeys the extreme end of the tail, and in the elephant the 
trunk, are organs of touch. 



262 SENSATIONS. 

rately, while we are saved from much of the pain that 
would otherwise ensue, if the fingers were not so pro- 
tected. If the cuticle should become removed, and the 
ends of the sensitive nerves be exposed to the air, pain 
would result, and the sense of touch be lost. 

360. Touch is the simplest of all the senses, and the 
one which is apparently first developed in the infant, and 
is common to a greater or less extent in all forms of ani- 
mal life. Simple as the sense is, it is capable of wonder- 
ful development, especially in persons deprived of one or 
more of the other senses. The blind learn to read by 
means of slightly raised letters, to recognize persons by 
feeling their faces, to distinguish by touch the different 
plants, the minute markings upon precious stones, the deli- 
cate tracery upon works of art, and, assisted by the sense 
of smell, even the color of fabrics. 1 They may become ex- 
pert musicians and also good sculptors, for it is related of 
the blind sculptor, Giovanni Gonelli, that he could model 
the most striking likenesses, entirely by the sense of touch. 
Physicians, by education, may acquire the tactus eruditus, 
or discriminating touch, which is so valuable in detecting 
any unusual thickening, swelling, heat, etc., of parts. 2 The 
expert pianist acquires the ability to handle with precision 
many keys in a few seconds of time, while the compositor 
accurately sets type with almost incredible rapidity. 

361. Taste is the sense by which we discover and recog- 
nize the flavors of substances. It is made possible through 

1 It is said that a blind country merchant was in the habit of selecting 
shawls and dress goods for various lady customers, whenever he went to the 
large cities for stock, and that he seldom failed in taste and judgment. 

2 A well-known surgeon, now dead, performed during his lifetime the most 
delicate operations, which required the keenest sense of touch. He was a 
large and rather uncouth looking man, and his hands and the instruments used 
by him were much larger than the average ; but the operations he performed 
were wonderfully delicate. 



THE SENSES — TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 



263 



the mucous membrane of the tongue, of the soft palate, 
and of the back part of the throat, these being, in fact, the 
"organs of taste." The mucous 
membrane of the tongue is 
especially adapted to this pur- 
pose. It is abundantly supplied 
with both vascular and nervous 
papillae, similar to those of the 
skin ; and, in addition, there are 
large compound papillae on the 
back part of the tongue, arranged 
in a V shape, and also smaller 
ones towards the front part. 
The papillae are covered with 
a plush-like epithelium, very 
delicate, permeable by fluids, and some of them contain 
simple terminal branches or loops of nerves. 

362. The tongue possesses, as we have seen, general 
sensibility ; but the sense of taste has no distinct nerve, 




Fig. 76. 

Papillae of the tongue. — Magnified 

20 diameters. 




Fig. 77. (Dalton.) 

Diagram of tongue, showing the nerves and papillae, and by dotted lines the 

direction of the muscles. 



as in the case of the senses of sight and hearing. The 
lingual or gustatory branch of the fifth pair of cranial 
nerves supplies about two-thirds of the tongue, while the 



264 SENSATIONS. 

lingual branch of the glosso-phaiyngeal is distributed to 
the posterior third. These nerves convey sensations of 
taste to the brain. The tip of the tongue seems to pos- 
sess the greatest sensibility to savors, next the base, ajicl 
after this the sides. 

363. Only those substances can be tasted tvhicli are 
dissolved. These, by endosmosis, penetrate the mucous 
membrane, thus reaching the nerves of taste. Accord- 
ingly, dry sugar or salt, placed upon the tongue, is not 
tasted till it begins to dissolve. The finer the comminu- 
tion of food, the sooner is it dissolved and tasted. The 
dissolving process is much facilitated by the varied move- 
ments of the tongue. 

364. Taste is one of the means by which we distin- 
guish between proper and improper articles of food. But 
in determining the nature of such articles, it is assisted by 
the other senses. Undoubtedly much pleasure is lent to 
the taste of certain substances by their appearance and 
odor. Hence, a "cold in the head" will interfere with the 
taste. The practice of swallowing disagreeable medicines 
with the nostrils closed is quite common. It has even 
been affirmed that, if the nostrils are closed and the eyes 
shut, the taste of an onion may be mistaken for that of an 
apple. The sense of taste, which in man is naturally 
more acute than that of smell, is more easily perverted ; 
whereas, in some of the lower animals — dogs for example, 
— the sense of smell is more acute, so that these animals 
generally smell before they taste. 

365. Such qualities as those called "watery," "astrin- 
gent," "viscid," "oily," "burning," "mild" and "sharp" 
are appreciated by the ordinary sensory nerves. "Sweet" 
and "sour " qualities are believed to be appreciated, in the 
main, by the gustatory nerve at the front of the tongue ; 



THE SENSES — TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 265 

"salt" and "bitter" qualities, by the other nerve of taste 
towards the back of the tongue. 

366. Taste in the human being, and also in some of 
the lower animals, is more or less influenced by imitation, 
habit, surroundings, and training. 1 The young baby does 
not readily distinguish between the taste of oil and that 
of sugar, but learns the difference by degrees. Children 
fancy certain articles of food and dislike others, because 
other members of the family or their schoolmates do the 
same. Persons living in malarious regions have been 
known to like the bitter taste of quinine. Inhabitants of 
certain parts of the world enjoy rancid fats. Morbid 
tastes are sometimes the result of disease, or disorders of 
the brain or of the blood. Persons so afflicted will eat 
with avidity slate pencils and plaster, drink vinegar, etc. 
That taste may be developed, especially when assisted by 
the sense of smell, is seen in expert tea and wine tasters. 
The tasting too frequently of strong condiments or spices 
blunts the sense of taste for more delicate flavors ; so also 
does the frequent tasting of any one article. The nerves 
of taste fully appreciate but one flavor at any one time, so 
that if one is presented before another has disappeared, 
the result is a mixed or confused taste. 

367. In man the sense of smell is not so acute as the 
other senses, and its impressions often need to be con- 
firmed by the others, (a.) In dogs, on the contrary, it is 
very acute, enabling them to track their prey and find 
their masters by scent alone. It is said that the Esqui- 
maux dogs in the Arctic regions are of great value, 
because they can detect by the sense of smell supplies of 

1 When tomatoes were first introduced into this country they were gener- 
ally disliked. Many a man, who will not eat fat salt pork at borne, will relish 
it at sea or in the army. 



266 



SENSATIONS. 



food which may be stored in the ice long distances away. 
By this sense animals escape from their pursuers, if they 
are to the windward of them. 

368. The essential organ of smell is the upper half of 
the mucous membrane of the nasal fossae or nose cavities. 
These are separated from each other by a vertical wall, 
called the septum, partly cartilaginous and in part of bone. 
In the mucous membrane which covers part of the septum, 




Fig. 78. 

Left nasal cavity. — 1, left olfactory bulb with its nerve branches ; 2, the nasal nerve ; 

3, a ganglion, and nerves of the sympathetic nervous system. 

and on the two upper turbinated bones, are distributed the 
terminal filaments of the olfactory nerve, or nerve of smell. 
These filaments come through the roof of the fossae, as 
through a sieve, from the olfactory bulbs which are the 
terminations of the olfactory nerves. These bulbs lie 
under the anterior portion of the cerebrum, and upon the 
bony floor of the cranial cavity. (Fig. 78.) The lower 
half of the mucous membrane of the nose is supplied with 
ordinary sensibility by a nasal branch of the fifth pair of 
cranial nerves. Its irritation causes sneezing. 



THE SENSES — TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 267 

369. Odors, to be recognized, must be presented in a 
gaseous or vaporous form to the mucous membrane con- 
taining the olfactory nerve filaments. The most minute 
portion of such a substance as musk will be readily per- 
ceived, if it be forcibly drawn up during inspiration into 
the higher portions of the nasal fossae. Some persons are 
so susceptible to odors and emanations, that the smell of 
certain substances, of roses, for example, or of new-mown 
hay, or of certain drugs in a powdered state, may excite 
in them an inflammation of the nasal passages. 1 Sharp and 
pungent vapors, such as that of hartshorn, are perceived 
by the lower portions of the nasal passages. 

370. There is no doubt that the sense of smell may be 
highly developed, especially in conjunction with that of 
the other senses, or in case these are deficient. It is 
related that a certain blind and deaf mute was able to 
recognize by the sense of smell any person with whom he 
had previously come in contact. Dryness of the nasal 
mucous membrane, or its frequent irritation, tend to blunt 
the sense of smell. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. How are sensations valuable ? 

2. How may they be classified ? 

3. What is the effect of excessive stimulation of nerves ? 

4. What useful purpose has pain ? Give examples. 

5. What parts of the body are in general most sensitive? Name 

some of them. 

6. What have you to say of the sensitiveness of different individ- 

uals among men and animals ? 

7. Name some of the sensations experienced through the nerves of 

the skin. 

8. How many special senses are usually reckoned? 

9. To what is the sensation of weight probably due ? 

1 Hay fever, a form of such inflammation, is believed to be induced by the 
pollen of the rag-weed, among other things. 



268 SENSATIONS. 

10. What is necessary to a healthy exercise of all the senses? 

11. Show by examples how the brain is necessary to sensation. 

12. Are the functions of the nerves of the special senses distinct from 

each other ? 

13. Can these senses be cultivated? How do we know this? 

14. What are the objects of the sense of touch? 

15. In what part of the body is the sense the most delicate? 

16. What service is rendered to the sensation by certain tissues, which 

are entirely destitute of it, such as the nails, the epidermis, 
and the fat ? 

17. How does touch compare with the other senses, as to simplicity 

and early development? 

18. What have you to say as to its capacity for varied application and 

training? Illustrate. 

19. What are the organs of taste? 

20. How is the mucous membrane of the tongue adapted to the exer- 

cise of this function ? 

21. Is there a distinct nerve of taste, like the optic nerve for seeing, 

and the auditory nerve for hearing ? 

22. What takes the place of such a nerve ? 

23. Where is there the greatest sensibility to savors ? 

24. In what form must substances be to be tasted ? Why ? 

25. What relation has this fact to the chewing of food ? 

26. Of what use is taste in addition to its appetizing quality? 

27. Do the other senses lend any intensity to the taste ? Illustrate. 

28. By which of the organs of taste, respectively, are the several qual- 

ities of objects supposed to be detected or appreciated? 

29. By what is the taste more or less influenced? Illustrate. 

30. To what are morbid tastes sometimes due ? 

31. Give an instance of the capacity of the taste for delicate training. 

32. How may the sense be blunted? 

33. How does the development of the sense of smell in man compare 

with that of the other senses? 

34. Illustrate the bluntness of the sense by comparison with the lower 

animals. 

35. What is the essential organ of smell? Describe it. 

36. How is the lower half of the mucous membrane of the nose sup- 

plied with ordinary sensibility? 

37. In what form must odors be presented to be appreciated ? 

38. Illustrate the extreme sensitiveness of certain persons to odors. 

39. Can the sense be trained ? Illustrate. 



ANALYSIS. 



269 



ANALYSIS OF THE SIXTEENTH CHAPTER. 



SENSATIONS. 



I. Object 



II. Kinds 



III. Organs 



IV. 



To gain information, — first, as to the condition 
of the body ; second, as to external objects and 
phenomena. 



p ( Fatigue, faintness, etc., — Generalized, 

f ^ oramon { Tickling, aching, etc., — Localized. 

, taste, smell, 
and hearing. 



I Special,- r/^n 5 e S j T 



Skin 
Muscles 



N 



1th sensitive 



Requirements ( Rest. 



Portions of mucous membrane I nerves and their 
The eye [ connecting 

The ear nerve centres. 

^ Internal organs (occasionally) J 

Proper stimulation. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
SIGHT. 

371. By means of sight we receive impressions of light, 
movement, and distance, the form, size, shades of color, 
and other general properties of objects, and, in general, the 
manifold beauties of nature and art. The organ of sight 
is the eye, and the parts belonging to the eye, or auxiliary 
to its use, are the eyeball, eyebrow, eyelids, ciliae or eye- 
lashes, lachrymal and Meibomian glands, tear passages, 
muscles, and optic nerve. 

372. Each eyeball rests in an orbital cavity partially 
surrounded by cushions of fat. The orbits are deep and 
conical, and are formed by the junction of various bones. 
Their upper and front edges project and overhang their 
openings, thus forming the brows, which are covered with 
thick skin, and short, strong hairs. The eyebrows, with 
the other projecting walls of the orbits, and the nose, 
serve to protect the eyes from injury. The hairs of the 
eyebrows prevent the perspiration from flowing into the 
eyes, by directing it towards the cheeks. 

373. In front of each orbit are two movable curtains, 
known as the upper and lower eyelids, the upper being more 
movable than the lower. When closed, they cover the 
orbital openings. Both have upon their edges hairs (eye- 
lashes) which project outwardly, and when the lids are 
closed, or even partially closed, interlace with each other, 
forming an admirable screen. Their bulbs are supplied 



SIGHT. 271 

with nerves. They are sensitive, and give warning of the 
approach of insects, dust, etc., even in the dark. 

In some persons the eyelashes are long and silky, while 
in others they are short and stiff. 1 A thin, loose skin 
covers the lids upon the outside. Their inner lining is a 
thin mucous membrane, the conjunctiva, which also covers 
the front of the eyeballs. This membrane is extremely 
sensitive, and aids the eyelashes in protecting the eye from 
dust and other foreign particles. 2 Between the skin and 
conjunctiva of the lids are cartilages? which serve to pre- 
serve the convexity and firmness of the walls of the lids. 
Between the cartilages and conjunctiva are the Meibomian 
glands, with their tubes lying in grooves in the cartilages. 
These glands secrete an oily material which lubricates the 
edges of the lids, thereby preventing them from adhering, 
and the tears from overflowing upon the cheeks. 4 The lids 



1 Sometimes when the lids are diseased the lashes turn inward and irritate 
the eye. 

2 Conjunctivitis, or inflammation of this membrane, is one of the commonest 
affections of the eyes, especially among those whose general health is deterio- 
rated, and who are exposed to dusty or other irritating air, as in factories and 
some tenements. 

"I have no doubt in my own mind," says Dr. Loring, the well-known ocu- 
list, "and I believe it is universally admitted, that vitiated air has a direct 
irritating effect on all mucous membranes, and I feel convinced from my own 
observation that the mucous membrane of the eye is peculiarly susceptible to 
its influence. This is shown by the fact that repeated attacks of inflammation 
of the mucous membrane of the eye, which have occurred in a vitiated atmos- 
phere, and which have resisted all curative means, are often cured at once, and 
prevented from recurring, when a wholesome supply of air is obtained, all 
other conditions remaining the same." 

In Egypt, owing to the intense heat, to the high winds, and clouds of sand, 
this and other inflammations of the eye become very severe, even destroying 
the organ. It is .said that many of the Crusaders in the Holy Land were made 
blind from these causes. 

3 Tarsal cartilages; 

4 The last effect will be better understood if the edges of a cup are greased 
and the cup is filled with water. The surface of the water may then be 
made higher than the edge of the cup, without the water overflowing 



272 



SIGHT. 



distribute moisture, or the tear secretion, over the surfaces 
of the eyes, and assist in regulating the admission of light 
thereto, and they protect them from heat and cold, and 
the contact of foreign particles, dust, insects, etc. The 
eye is closed by the action of a broad, thin, elliptical 
muscle which surrounds the orbit and spreads out upon 
the lids. By it the skin and soft parts about the eye are 
wrinkled and drawn together inward, and the lids firmly 
held together. 



,lo 



374. At the external and upper portion of the orbits 
are located the lachrymal glands, which secrete the tears. 
This watery secretion, like the insensible perspiration, is 
constant, and is spread by the lids over the front surface 
of the ball. A portion is carried into the nose through 

four openings, one on the edge 
of each lid, near its inner 
extremity. These openings 
may be readily seen by evert- 
ing the lids while looking into 
a mirror. They connect 
with little canals (lachrymal 
canals), which communicate 
also with two enlargements, 
called the lachrymal or tear 
sacs, and these latter with 
the nasal ducts, which discharge into the nose. (Fig. 79.) 
The tear sacs, together with the nasal ducts, constitute 
the lachrymal canals. The lachrymal secretion keeps the 
front of the eyeballs in that moist and transparent con- 
dition which is necessary for clear vision and comfort. 
If the eye should become dry, as it does sometimes, 
from disease, or long exposure to dry, hot winds, it be- 
comes clouded, light being but poorly admitted through 




TD 



Fig. 79. 

LG, lachrymal gland; TD, openings of 

tear ducts; LS, lachrymal sac; ND, 

nasal duct. Skin and parts external 

to these organs removed. 



SIGHT. 273 

it. 1 Usually this secretion passes into the nasal ducts 
after performing its functions ; but, if largely increased in 
quantity by emotion or irritation, it overflows in tears upon 
the cheeks ; hence, emotional persons readily weep. 2 

375. Each eyeball is spherical in form, and has the 
segment of a smaller and more prominent sphere fitted 
upon its anterior portion, somewhat as a watch glass is set 
into its case. (Fig. 81.) The diameter of the eye from 
the front backwards is about an inch; the transverse 
diameter a little less. The segment of the larger sphere, 
forming about five-sixths of the globe, is opaque, while 
that of the smaller and anterior sphere, the cornea, which 
is without blood-vessels, is transparent, light -passing 
through it as through a clear window-glass. 3 

376. The posterior five-sixths of each eyeball is com- 
posed of three coats or tunics : the sclerotic, choroid, and 
retina. The sclerotic coat is a white, firm, fibrous envelope 
of the posterior five-sixths of each eyeball. It has but few 
blood-vessels, is not very sensitive, assists in maintaining 
the globular form of the eyeball, and protects the delicate 
structures within it. To its outer surface are attached 
the six muscles, four straight and two oblique, which are 
capable of moving the eyeball in nearly all directions. 
Upon the front of the eye the sclerotic coat forms what is 

1 Lustreless eyes are seen in fish which have heen removed for a time from 
the water. In some forms of scrofulous or hlood disease in the human heing, 
the Meibomian and lachrymal secretions are decreased in amount, and the eyes 
become bloodshot and cloudy, giving rise to the peculiar appearance known as 
" blear-eyed," the defect being enhanced by the roughening and falling out of 
the eyelashes. 

2 Sometimes, also, where the tissues of the lower lids are relaxed, as in old 
persons, and the lids are everted, the tears overflow. 

3 The cornea can be best seen by looking at it in the human being from the 
side, or by observing the reflection of objects upon it. In looking at an eye in 
front, Ave look through the cornea and aqueous humor. 



274 



SIGHT. 



called the " white of the eye," and is covered by the con- 
junctiva. In its inner surface are lodged the ciliary 
nerves. Behind, and a little to the inner side, it is pierced 
by the filaments of the optic nerve, or nerve of sight, whose 
fibrous sheath is continuous with the dura mater of the 
brain. Along with, and in the centre of, the filaments, 
there passes into the eye a large central artery, which is 
distributed to the lining coat. Other blood-vessels, and 




Muscles of the eye. — 1, the muscle which lifts the upper lid ; 2, the superior 
ohlique muscle ; 3, the pulley through which its tendon plays ; 4, 5, 6, superior, 
inferior, and external straight muscles ; 10, inferior oblique muscle; 11, optic 
nerve; 12, cut surface of cheek hone ; 13, nasal orifice. 

also some of the ciliary nerves, pass into the eye, along 
with the optic nerve, through an opening in the bottom of 
the orbit. 

377. The choroid, sometimes called the vascular coat, is 
the middle coat of the eye, and is closely adherent to the 
inner surface of the sclerotic. It is soft, containing a net- 
work of blood-vessels, and is of a dark color, like the 
inside of the skin of a dark grape, being lined with a 



SIGHT. 275 

layer of flat, dark-brown, or nearly black, pigment cells. 
This dark surface absorbs such of the rays of light which 
enter the eye as would otherwise be reflected and diffused, 
and prevent accurate vision. In Albinos, also in white 
rabbits, and other animals having red or pink eyes, the 
pigment cells are deficient, and accordingly vision is 
imperfect, especially in the day-time, or when the eyes are 
exposed to strong light. 

378. A prolongation of the choroid, in the front of the 
eye, forms the ms, which is a curtain across the interior of 
the eye, behind the cornea, at the margin of which it is at- 
tached. In its centre is the pupil, a round opening, through 
which all light that enters the back part of the eye must 
pass. 1 The iris is a muscular organ having two sets of fibres, 
circular and radiating. Through the involuntary action of 
these fibres the pupil contracts and dilates, when exposed 
to greater or less light, thus performing its function of 
regulating the amount of light admitted to the retina. 
But the pupil does not act instantaneously ; hence, on 
coming into a bright light from a dark room, or going into 
a dark room from the bright sunlight, vision is confused 
until the proper amount of light has been excluded or 
admitted, as the case may be, by the contraction, or expan- 
sion of the pupil, and until the retina also has accommo- 
dated itself to the change. Certain medicinal substances 

1 The shape of the pupil differs in different animals. In the cat it is a nar- 
row, horizontal slit when contracted, and is round when dilated. Capable of 
great dilatation, it enables the cat to see even in the dark. In the human eye 
the pupil seems black, except in the case of the Albino. The black appearance 
is due to the fact that, in looking at the pupil, we look into a dark chamber at 
the back. In the Albino, the pigment cells being deficient, we see the pinkish 
color afforded by the blood-vessels. In certain nocturnal animals, such as 
wolves and cats, in obscure light the pupil presents a sparkling or glaring 
appearance, which at one time was supposed to be due to a kind of phospho- 
rescence, but is now recognized as a reflection from a patch of metallic lustre 
found upon the choroid of these animals. 



276 



SIGHT. 



have the property of dilating, and others of contracting, 
the pupil. For example, belladonna, or atropine, which is 
its active principle, taken internally, or applied to or 
about the eye, dilates the pupil, while opium and the 
Calabar bean contract it. 1 The color of the iris varies, 




Fig. 81. 
Vertical section of the eyeball, and part of the optic nerve. — 2, sclerotic coat; 
4 and 5, external and internal coverings of the optic nerve, continuous with 
those of the sclerotic coat; 8, superior and inferior straight muscles; 9, the 
cornea; 15, the choroid coat; 17, ciliary muscle; 18, ciliary body; 23, branches 
of central artery of the retina; 28, the crystalline lens ; 29, the iris ; 30, the 
pupil ; 32, anterior chamber. 

and is apt to be in accord with the general coloring of the 
individual. 2 By the terms, blue, brown, hazel, gray, or 
black eyes, the color of the iris is indicated. 8 Just behind 
the iris, towards its circumference, lie the ciliary muscle 



1 The acts of dilatation and contraction of the pupil may be seen by alter- 
nately covering the eye of another with the hand for a moment, and then 
removing it. In many young persons considerable dilatation is normal, while 
the same is true of contraction in some old persons. Extreme contraction or 
dilatation of the pupil is the result of poisoning or of disease. 

2 Sometimes brunettes are seen with light eyes, and blondes with dark ones, 
and occasionally a person is found with one eye light and the other dark. 

3 The eyes of young infants are almost always blue, the color not begin- 
ning to change until the sixth or eighth week of life. 



SIGHT. 277 

and also the ciliary body, a dark pigmented mass, arranged 
in fluted folds known as the "ciliary processes" (Fig. 81), 
which, with the iris, control the function of accommoda- 
tion, to be hereafter described. 1 

379. The retina is the third coat, and lines nearly the 
whole of the posterior five-sixths of the eyeball. 2 It is a 
delicate, transparent membrane, containing an expansion 
of the filaments of the optic nerve. It is sensitive only to 
light. A jar of the retina or optic nerve by a blow upon 
the head, or an electric shock communicated to the eyeball, 
or any irritation applied to the retina, produces flashes 
of light, — an effect which is familiarly termed "seeing 
stars." The function of the retina is to receive the rays 
of light which, emanating from objects, enter the pupil 
of the eye, and communicate the impressions thus pro- 
duced through the optic nerve to the cerebrum. The 
retina is not, however, equally sensitive to light through- 
out its whole extent. The point of entrance of the optic 
nerve is insensible to light, and is* therefore called the 
"blind spot," 3 while from one-twelfth to one-eighth of an 
inch outwardly from this point in each eye is an oval spot 
called the " yellow spot," which is the most sensitive part 
of the retina. This spot is directly in the line of distinct 

1 The iris, ciliary body, and choroid, together are called the uveal tract. 

2 Its greatest thickness is said to be not more than t |q of an inch, and 
microscopists describe eight or ten different layers in it. An outer one con- 
tains the "rods" and "cones," which are most intimately concerned in the 
perception of light, while next to the inner coat is the expansion of the optic 
nerve. 

3 The blind spot may be proved by a simple experiment. Place the two 
thumbs side by side about twelve inches from the face. Shut the left eye, and 
look at the left thumb intently with the right eye, while you gradually move 
the right thumb away from it toward the right. At a certain point, generally 
about six or seven inches, the right thumb will seem to disappear. If carried 
still farther away, it will be again seen. The explanation of this phenomenon 
is that, at the point of disappearance, the picture of the thumb falls upon the 
blind spot. 



278 SIGHT. 

vision. 1 Each impression received by the retina lasts for 
a time before fading away. If impressions are received 
too rapidly, one after another, vision is confused or dazzled, 
as the case may be, or the objects seem to be one. The 
old impressions are retained while the new ones are being 
received. Thus, the spokes of a rapidly-revolving wheel 
seem to form a continuous disk. A lighted torch rapidly 
revolved shows a circle of light. Two colors upon a card, 
if rotated rapidly, are confused by the eye into a blurred 
image, or, if the colors be primary, the complementary sec- 
ondary color is perceived. 2 The retina becomes tired and 
loses its sensibility by looking for a long time steadily at 
one object, and the sight is relieved by closing the eyes 
for a moment, or by an occasional glance at other objects. 3 

380. Within each eyeball are three transparent media 
or humors : the aqueous humor, the vitreous (glass-like) 
humor, and the crystalline lens. Enclosed within the 
retina is the vitreous humor. It is a colorless, transparent, 
and jelly-like substance, which assists in preserving the 
form of the eyeball, and affords support to the delicate 
retina. On its front, in a cup-like hollow, rests the 
crystalline lens. Between the lens and the cornea is the 
aqueous humor, consisting of a few drops of a watery fluid 
in which the iris can freely move. 

381. The crystalline lens is located just behind the iris 
and in front of the vitreous humor, and is about one-quar- 
ter of an inch in thickness, is shaped like a double convex 

1 The yellow spot, upon which the rays of light converge, i.e., are focussed, 
receives impressions through the motions of the eyeball from side to side as in 
reading, or in various directions, as we catch at a glance the beauties of a 
landscape. 

2 Toys for children, in which figures seem actually to he in motion, are 
constructed on the principle stated above. 

3 Looking steadily for a time at a bright light or spot will cause it to 
appear dark. After rest this dark color disappears. 



SIGHT. 279 

lens or magnifying glass, and is contained in a capsule, 
which is kept in place by a so-called suspensory ligament, 
which is a continuation of the enclosing membrane of the 
vitreous humor. 1 The lens is of the consistency of jelly, 
but very elastic, especially in children ; consequently, in 
them the shape is very readily changed, while in old per- 
sons the lens is quite dense, and is not easily changed. 

The function of the crystalline lens is to assist the cornea 
in bringing rays of light to a point or "focus" upon 
the retina. This is necessary to distinct vision, for, without 
the lens, the rays would not be thus focussed, and sight 
would be blurred. The crystalline lens, being convex, 
converges the rays of light which pass through it to a 
focal point, giving at that point an inverted image of the 
objects from which the rays proceed. So, in a bright, 
direct light, by means of a convex lens, objects, such as 
trees, drawings, etc., may be pictured upon a white or 
light-colored surface, but always inverted, or upside down. 
In the same way, through the crystalline lens, inverted 
images are formed upon the retina. 2 Notwithstanding 
this inversion, however, in normal vision, these images are 
seen in their proper positions and relations. We learn to 
appreciate the size and form of objects reflected upon the 
retina by comparison and experience. As it is the brain 

1 Cataract is an opacity of the crystalline lens, and not a " white spot on 
the front of the eye," as some believe. It may affect the whole or part of the 
lens. Usually light is transmitted through the lens when so affected, as through 
a ground glass window. To restore transparent media, or to remove the irrita- 
tion which such opacity may set up, the lens may he removed by operation. 
When removed, vision can he in part restored by the use of spectacles or eye- 
glasses, i.e., artificial lenses. 

2 A candle flame held before the cornea of an eyeball removed from a bul- 
lock (the sclerotic and choroid on the posterior of the eyeball being detached) 
will be seen reflected inverted upon the retina. When the lens has been 
removed from the eye by operation, the focus of the rays of light falls about 
three-eights of an inch behind the retina, and the object seems much larger 
than it really is, and much less distinct. 



280 SIGHT. 

which is the ultimate organ of perception, a disordered 
brain will sometimes perceive distorted images in objects 
of which the retina receives correct impressions ; hence, 
also, apparent vision is possible without any retinal impres- 
sion at all, the disordered brain seeing some phantom 
image of its own creation. It is in this way that in 
dreams objects appear to be so vividly seen that they may 
be readily described when the sleeper awakes. 

382. All the various directions from which rays of light 
come into the pupil, taken together, form what is known 
as the "circle" or "held of vision." Immediately in the 
centre of this field objects can be most distinctly seen. 
To enable one to have a long or short range of vision at 
will, to see remote objects, and then, within an incredibly 
short time, those close at hand, the crystalline lens has a 
power of accommodation. But objects at different distances 
cannot be plainly perceived at the same time. The lens 
in each case must be accommodated to the distance. 
Thus, while we gaze at a fly upon a window pane, or the 
threads of a veil, we do not see plainly the landscape 
beyond. If we see the landscape plainly, the fly and the 
threads of the veil become indistinct. This accommoda- 
tion is the result of changes in the shape of the lens pro- 
duced by the ciliary muscle, the small muscle before 
mentioned, which encircles the lens and is connected 
with the delicate ligament that holds the lens in posi- 
tion. As the objects looked at are brought near the 
eye, the lens becomes more and more convex. When 
the eye is at rest, or when objects are distant, the lens is 
more flattened. The ciliary muscle bears the same rela- 
tion to the eye as the adjusting screw does to the opera- 
glass, photographer's camera, or to the microscope. The 
range of accommodation is limited, and differs in different 



SIGHT. 281 

individuals. Ordinarily accommodation fails and vision 
is imperfect when the object is less than six inches from 
the eye. Outside or inside of each one's normal limit of 
vision, or where the lines of sight no longer focus or meet, 
vision becomes imperfect and blurred. The average eye 
is able to recognize type one-thirty-second of an inch in 




Fig. 82. 
Section of eye. — The line A-V is the axis of vision ; S, sclerotic coat ; C, the cornea ; 
CC, choroid coat; R, retina; VH, vitreous humor; AH, aqueous humor; CL, 
crystalline lens ; I, the iris. The dotted lines show the position of the iris and 
the shape of the lens in accommodation for a certain distance; CM, ciliary 
muscle ; SL, suspensory ligament of lens. 

height, held at least eighteen inches off, 1 and type three- 
eighths of an inch in height twenty feet away. But the 
ability to see plainly objects at a distance, or near the eyes, 
can be developed by training. The pilot clearly defines 
objects at a long distance, even in an obscure light, which 
the average eye could not even distinguish. On the other 

1 " The following paragraph from Dr. Snellen of Utrecht, the author of the 
test-types in general use, gives a specimen of letters one-thirty-second of an 
inch in height : 

" We have adopted as proper objects square letters, the limbs of which have a diameter equal to one- 
fifth of the letters' height. Such letters are clearly distinguished by a normal eye at an angle of five 
minutes. As the limbs and subdivisions of the letter just measure one-fifth of their height, they present 
themselves at an angle of one minute ; for instance, our letter C shows an opening, as compared with the O, 
of one minute visual angle. In testing accuracy of vision, we accept perfect recognition, and not uncertain 
perception, of the letters." 



282 SIGHT. 

hand, the watch-maker's eyesight is very acute for objects 
near at hand. 1 

383. The optic nerves, which carry impressions from the 
retinas to the cerebrum, are inserted into the posterior 
segment of the eyeballs, a little to the inner side of their 
centres. Passing into the cavity of the skull, they approach 
each other and consolidate, forming what is known as the 
" optic chiasm." At this point there occurs a decussation 
of a portion of the optic nerve fibres, so that some of the 
filaments pass from the left optic nerve to the right, and 
from the left eyeball to the right one, and vice versa. 
Filaments also pass from one optic tubercle, that is, from 
the origin of one optic nerve to the other. 2 The eyes, as 
Dalton remarks, "are not so much two distinct organs, as 
one double one." Besides the direct impressions (color, 
size, etc.) carried to the brain by the optic nerves, impres- 
sions which result in reflex action are brought back to the 
eye from the optic tubercles. A stimulus of light, for 
example, is conveyed to the optic tubercles, and is reflected 
outward to the muscular fibres of the iris, causing con- 
traction or dilatation, as the case may be. 

1 The eyesight may be brought to a high state of perfection by proper cul- 
tivation. It is related of Professor Agassiz that he once selected as an assist- 
ant the candidate who could best see and describe what was to be seen from an 
open window. One person saw merely a board fence and a brick pavement, 
another added a stream of soapy water, while a third detected the color of the 
paint on the fence, noted a green mold or fungus on the bricks, and evidence 
of bluing in the water, and other details. Houdin, the celebrated prestidigita- 
teur, in his autobiography, attributes his succees mainly to the quickness of 
his perception, which he acquired by walking repeatedly and rapidly by a shop 
window full of miscellaneous articles, endeavoring thus to recognize as many 
objects as he could at a glance. 

In many respects the human eye resembles the photographic camera, with 
its darkened chamber, reflecting surfaces, adjusting screws, sensitive plates, etc., 
and like it, in use by an experienced aud pains-taking owner, much more accu- 
rate pictures will be reproduced than if the owners are reckless or uneducated. 

2 The optic tubercles are cerebral ganglia on the under surface of the brain, 
near its front portion, in which the optic nerves originate. 



SIGHT. 283 

384. Objects are ordinarily perceived by the simulta- 
neous use of both eyes, i.e., by binocular vision. Two 
images of each object are formed at the same time, one 
upon each retina, though so combined as to produce the 
impression of but one object upon the brain. 1 With 
binocular vision we appreciate, with greater accuracy, the 
solidity and distance of objects; 2 hence, with one eye 
closed, the difficulty of threading a needle, or touching 
any object quickly, will be much increased, (a.) 

385. Owing to the extreme sensitiveness of the eyes, 
defects in vision are quite common. In cases of injury 
to, or disease of one eye, the peculiar decussation of the 
fibres of the optic nerves may give rise to "sympathetic" 
inflammation, or disease of the other eye. 3 

The ophthalmoscope, an optical instrument which, used 
in a dark room, reflects by means of a bright light the inner 
coats and contents of the eye, was invented by Helmholtz 
in 1851. It enables the physician to detect optical defects 
which the patient may not have been aware of. Before the 
use of the ophthalmoscope many diseased or disordered con- 
ditions of the eye were not accurately recognized. It is 
now known, for example, that defective circulation in the 
retinal blood-vessels may disturb the vision; and that 
changes in the form, consistency, or relation of the various 
parts of the eye may induce grave optical defects. 

1 The best binocular vision results when the images are both upon the yellow 
spots. But if this be not the case, if, for example, one eye be pressed a little 
to one side by the finger, and an object is then looked at with both eyes, the 
object will seem double, the images falling upon different points in the two eyes. 

2 Looking at a solid object with both eyes, the two images formed upon the 
retina are not exactly alike, for one eye sees it from one side, the other from 
another side. The result is a " stereoscopic effect." Double pictures, so drawn 
that they represent the objects as seen by the two eyes, will, when shown by 
the stereoscope, appear solid. 

3 As to the removal of foreign bodies, and the treatment of injuries of the 
eye, see chapter on emergencies. 



284 SIGHT. 

386. Color-blindness is the inability to distinguish 
certain colors. Helmholtz and others have considered 
red, green, and violet as base colors, i.e., colors, by the 
mingling of which in proper proportions, white (a combi- 
nation of all colors) and the various colors of the solar 
spectrum may be produced. It is believed that there are 
special retinal elements for the perception of each of these 
base colors, and that the color-blind are deficient in one 
set of these elements, most commonly the red. 1 It is 
especially important that railroad engineers and seamen 
should not be color-blind. Vessels carry at night upon 
their right hand or "starboard" side a green light, and 
upon the left hand or "port" side a red light. A red 
light also is the danger signal upon railroads. Color-blind 
engineers may therefore not distinguish danger signals, or 
pilots know how to pass an approaching vessel, thereby 
causing collision and loss of life. Especially are such 
accidents to be expected if the atmosphere is so humid 
that these men cannot distinguish the difference in the 
luminosity as well as in the color of signals, (a.') 

387. An eye perfectly formed, i.e., one in which the 
rays of light are made to converge to a focus directly upon 
the retina, is called an emmetropic' 1 eye. If the axis of 

1 Sometimes color-blindness is called Daltonism, from Dalton, the English 
chemist, who first carefully described it, and was himself subject to it. It is 
related that his friends were much concerned when he was to be presented at 
court, for fear that, being a Quaker, he would not wear the scarlet robe which 
his position required him to wear ; but to him it seemed of a gray color. 

2 From the Greek word emmetros, i.e. regular. Accuracy of vision may 
" be ascertained by employing the ordinary cards used by opthalmic surgeons, 
upon which are printed letters (in Roman) of differing sizes. Each line of 
letters has at the end a number, which denotes the distance in feet at which a 
person should stand and see the letters clearly. If he can do this, he possesses 
normal acuteness of vision. According to the usual system employed in eye 
infirmaries, if a certain line is to be read at a distance of fifteen feet, and the 
pupil can do so, he is marked xf ; if he must go closer, and can only distinguish 
at eleven feet, he is marked \l, the denominator of the fraction representing 
the normal distance, and the numerator the actual distance, (a.) 



SIGHT. 



285 



the eyeball is too long or too short, the focus will not fall 
upon the retina, but in front of or behind it. There is 
then said to be an " error in refraction." In myopia} or 
short-sight, parallel rays of light entering the eye are 
focussed in front of the retina, the axis of the eye being 
too long. Objects are not plainly seen until they are 
brought near enough for their images to be focussed upon 
the retina. This condition is often hereditary, but is also 
induced by strain, for example, by reading very small print 
in a poor light, and by long, uninterrupted use of the eyes 
in close work. For its relief, properly fitted concave 
glasses are needed, (a.) 



Fig. 83 




A, parallel rays of light; E, emmetropic or normal eye, rays focussing at proper 
point; H, long-sighted eye; M, short-sighted eye. 

388. In hypermetropia, or long sight, the axis of the 
eyeball is too short, and the focus falls beyond the retina. 
This condition is to be remedied by convex glasses, which 
will converge the rays of light upon the retina. Print, 
after too long reading, becomes blurred and misty. The 
performance of accommodation is painful, so sensitive 
have the parts become, even when there is no attempt to 
use the eyes, and in children there is always more or less 
danger of squint resulting from the effort to see things 
near by. 



1 So called from Greek words which mean to close the eyes, since short- 
sighted persons often partially close the lids in order to see distinctly. 



286 



SIGHT. 



389. Presbyopia, or old sight, is a failure of accommo- 
dation, or a loss of power for adjusting the focus of the 
eye for near objects, and is especially due to the fact that 
with increasing age the lens becomes stiffer, and incapable 
of being bent into the convexity necessary for the adjust- 
ment of the focus for near objects. 1 To remedy this 
defect convex lenses are required. 

390. Another optical defect is 
astigmatism, or the inability of the 
eye to focus lines perpendicular 
to each other at the same time. 
(Fig. 84.) This condition depends 
upon a difference in the curvature 
of the different meridians of the 
cornea or lens. Persons so affected 
may readily distinguish horizontal 
or perpendicular lines of type, but 
not both sets equally well at the 
same time. 




Fig. 84. 



391. Proper care of the eyes is of the greatest impor- 
tance. Healthy and well-formed eyes, if properly used, do 
their work without the consciousness of their owners, so 
that pain, or discomfort in them, or even slight defects in 
vision, are warnings of disorder if not of disease. But 
persons whose general health is unusually good are liable 
to be over confident, and so fail to take notice of these 
warnings in time. Young children are too frequently 
encouraged in persistent " near work," such as prolonged 
drawing, studying, reading, and sewing. Such children 

1 Sometimes old people are delighted at the return of what is called " sec- 
ond sight," by which they may be enabled to read without the aid of their 
accustomed glasses. In fact, they have become short-sighted owing to a change 
in the shape of the lens, and can see clearly objects near at hand, while objects 
far off are more indistinct than before. 



SIGHT. 287 

may become prodigies, but the soundness of their eyes is 
frequently sacrificed. («.) Most of the eye troubles of 
infants are the result of the careless exposure of their sensi- 
tive eyes to glaring light, or to impure air, in the "living" 
rooms where the washing of soiled clothing is carried on, 
or of the application of poultices and other materials to 
the eye, etc. In adult life certain occupations tend to 
weaken the eyes, but even in such instances much can 
be done to save them. The following directions for this 
purpose are those deemed most important : — 

1. For all kinds of work have an abundance of clear 
and steady light, especially when engaged in writing, read- 
ing, embroidering, painting, or other work which "tries 
the eyes." Fine work, and that upon dark surfaces, should 
be performed by daylight. Using the eyes closely during 
twilight is injurious. 

2. Avoid a glaring light, and see to it that the sun does 
not shine directly upon your work. Interpose ground 
glass, or light blue, or gray tinted glass, or paper. The 
reflection into the eyes of sunlight from the surface of 
mirrors is not to be tolerated. 

3. Let the light reach your work preferably from the 
left side and from above, not from in front. 1 

4. When using artificial light (i.e., that from a lamp, 
gas, etc.), it is beneficial to shade the eyes from any heat 
and glare. If gas is used, the Argand burner, with its 
shade and chimney, is advisable. If a lamp, use only the 
best oil and a good lamp, particularly the " German 
students' lamp." "A slight tinge of blue or gray, in the 
shade or chimney, modifies the light pleasantly by absorb- 
ing the excess of yellow rays." 2 The heat and glare of 

1 If from the right or hehind, shadows are cast upon the work. 

2 Coal oil is so cheap now-a-days that there is no need for "tallow dips," 
or the "slush lights " of the miners, and light from it is much hetter for the 
eyes. The electric light (adapted to use in the house) will.it is believed, prove 
useful for near work. 



288 SIGHT. 

necessarily bright illuminating rays are sometimes lessened 
by the interposition of globes filled with water. 

5. When reading, it is important that the type should 
be clear, 1 of good size, and printed in dark, not pale, ink ; 
that the paper printed upon should have a yellowish tinge, 
or not be absolutely white. 2 For sensitive eyes faint blue 
ink may be preferable. 

6. Do not read or write when lying doivn, riding in the 
cars or a carriage, or when walking, or when overcome with 
sleep, for under all these conditions the accommodative 
apparatus of the eyes is strained. Especially is this true 
if we read in moving vehicles, for the irregular muscular 
strain resulting is exhausting to most eyes. Reading 
during convalescence from any debilitating sickness is 
attended by an improper strain of the weakened eye 
muscles. 

7. Do not bend over your work for any length of time ; 
such a constrained position tires the muscles of the eye as 
well as those of the neck and trunk. 

8. Prolonged and uninterrupted tension of the eyes over 
any kind of work is injurious, but especially is this true 
of fine work. Look up and away from the work frequently, 
directing the sight towards varied and distant objects. 3 

1 What is known as "heavy-faced" type should be used, not the "light- 
faced." 

2 Most occulists believe that the best paper is that which is known to the 
trade as "natural," i.e., which has no dye in it, and which has been bleached 
but little, and is not glazed. 

3 Writing tables and desks covered with blue or green cloth, paper, or 
leather, serve to rest the eyes. Rooms papered and painted in the same colors 
have the same effect. Smoked or light blue eye-glasses may be worn if the 
eyes are exposed to glaring light, such as the reflection from snow or sand. It 
is a disadvantage of city life that the eyes are occupied for the most part with 
close objects. Excursions into the country are valuable partly for the rest af- 
forded the eyes. It is related of a city boy, that, when taken from the ten- 
ement in which he lived to the country, he went into raptures, exclaiming, 
" that he never knew there was so much sky." 



SIGHT. 289 

If the eyes pain, or are fatigued, or the images produced 
are blurred, rest them. 

9. In reading, a book should not be held nearer to the 
eyes than is necessary to see the print distinctly. Print 
like that in the text of this book should not be read con- 
tinuously nearer than about eighteen inches. If you are 
obliged to hold it nearer than fifteen inches, the probability 
is that you are near-sighted ; if two feet away, far-sighted. 

10. If the eyes ache or are weak, bathe them frequently 
in clear cool water, but do not use eye-washes, soap, poul- 
tices, or other application unless prescribed by a physician. 
The eye is too precious an organ to be trifled with. 

11. "Have all diseases of the eye treated early and skil- 
fully, and remember that the well eye sympathizes with 
the diseased one, and you may lose both unless early atten- 
tion is given to the matter. Diseases of the eyes in which 
a large amount of matter forms are dangerous, and pa- 
tients so affected should be careful to get no matter from 
the diseased eye into the well one, and they should have a 
separate basin and towels for washing purposes." 

12. If necessary to wear glasses or spectacles, do it, the 
eyesight being of more importance than personal appear- 
ance. 

13. Beware of quack eye doctors, and travelling or street 
vendors of spectacles : neither have medical education or 
experience. Even plain colored glasses or goggles, used 
without proper advice, are likely to be injurious. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What are the parts belonging to the eye, or auxiliary to its use ? 

2. Describe how the eyes are protected from injury, — by situation; 

the eyebrows ; the eyelids ; and the eyelashes. 

3. What is the conjunctiva and its function ? 

4. Where, and of what use, are the tarsal cartilages V the Meibomian 

glands ? 



290 SIGHT. 

5. What are the functions of the eyelids ? 

6. By what are tears secreted, and how are they poured into and dis- 

tributed over the eye, and discharged from it ? 

7. Of what use are the tears, and how is their secretion increased ? 

8. Describe the eyeballs. 

9. Through which part of them does light enter, and through what 

media ? 

10. How many and what coats has the other or opaque part? 

11. Describe the sclerotic coat, and how it is moved. 

12. What gains admission to the eye through the sclerotic coat, and 

where ? 

13. Locate, describe, and give the use of the choroid. 

14. Of the iris and pupil. 

15. To what is the color of the eye due ? 

16. Where is the ciliary muscle ? 

17. Locate, describe, and give the functions of the retina. 

18. Explain what is meant by the " blind spot " ; by the " yellow spot." 

19. Explain why the spokes of a rapidly revolving wheel seem to run 

together, and why a rapidly revolving torch gives a circle of 
light. 

20. How may the retina of the eye become tired and cease to act ? 

and how may its action be restored ? 

21. Locate, describe, and give the use of the vitreous humor; of the 

crystalline lens. 

22. In what position are the images of objects thrown upon the retina ? 

Why do we see them in their proper position ? 

23. What is the ultimate organ of perception, and to what are unusual 

visions due? 

24. WTiere and what is the aqueous humor ? 

25. What do you mean by the " circle " or " field of vision " ? 

26. What by the "power of accommodation," and to what is it due? 

27. What illustrations can you give of the effect of training the power 

of accommodation ? 

28. What is the object of the optic nerves. 

29. At what point does a decussation of the optic nerves take place ? 

30. How is the iris stimulated to contract and dilate ? 

31. What is meant by binocular vision, and what is its use ? 

32. What is meant by an emmetropic eye ? 

33. What is myopia, and to what is it due ? 

34. What bad habits produce it, and by what sort of glasses must it 

be relieved ? 



SIGHT. 



291 



35. "What is hypermetropia, and to what is it due? 

36. What is presbyopia, and to what is it due ? 

37. How are hypermetropia and presbyopia remedied ? 

38. What is astigmatism, and to what is it due ? 

39. What is color-blindness and its dangers ? 

40. What cautions must be observed in reference to the care of the 

eyes? 



ANALYSIS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CHAPTER. 



I. Importance. 



SIGHT. 



f Orbit. 
Eyebrows. 

Eyelids and conjunctiva. 
Eyelashes or ciliae. 
Meibomian glands and ducts. 
' Cornea. 



II. Organs (or, the eyes and 
their appendages) 



III. Normal 



IV. Defects 
V. Care of. 



Eyeball 



^ Optic nerves. 



Sclerotic coat. 
Choroid. 
Iris. 
Pupil. 

Ciliary body. 
Retina. 

Vitreous humor. 
Aqueous humor. 
Crystalline lens. 



Binocular vision. 

Power of accommodation. 

r Blurring, or weak sight. 
Myopia, or short sight. 
Hypermetropia, or long sight. 
Presbyopia, or old sight. 
Astigmatism. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

HEARING. 

392. Hearing is effected by means of impressions made 
by the vibration of elastic bodies, ordinarily of the atmos- 
phere, upon the organs of hearing. 1 A shock from a 
sounding body, communicated to the surrounding atmos- 
phere, passes in waves towards the ear, moving like the 
ripples upon water after a pebble has been thrown into it. 
Sound moves at the rate of 1090 feet per second in air at 
the freezing point ; the velocity increasing 2 feet per sec- 
ond for every increase of 2° C. in the temperature. 

Upon the variations in the rapidity of the vibrations of 
sonorous bodies depends the pitch of the sounds they 
produce. Every sound is composed of a number of partial 
tones, as they are called, just as light is composed of a 
number of colors. The number and comparative strength 
of these partial tones affords the difference in sounds. 2 
By this difference we distinguish one voice from another. 
The notes on the piano and organ are said to vary from 
33 to 4224 vibrations in a second. The piccolo, a kind 
of flute, emits a shrill note of 4752 vibrations in a second. 
These are the ordinary notes used in music, but the human 
ear can distinguish a note with as few vibrations as 20, 
and as many as 38,000, in a second. The higher notes, 

1 The earth, wood, and many other solid substances transmit sound readily. 
Even so slight a sound as the scratching with a pin on the end of a long log 
may be heard at the other end. An approaching train may be discovered by 
the sound transmitted for along distance upon the iron rails. 

2 The first partial tone is known as the fundamental tone, the others are 
" over-tones " or harmonics. 



HEARING. 293 

however, are more or less painful to the ear, so powerful 
are the vibrations in the air of the auditory canal. 1 

393. The ear is the organ of hearing. It has a very 
complex and delicate structure, which is for the most part 
located in the petrous or stony portion of the temporal 
bone in order to be well protected from injury. For con- 
venience of study the ear is considered in three portions : 
the external, middle, and internal ear. The first two ana- 
tomical divisions correspond to the conducting apparatus, 
and the last to the perceptive. 

394. The external ear includes the auricle, or the ear of 
common language, and the auditory canal, which leads to 
the membrana tympani or drum-head. The auricle is a 
shell of cartilage covered with skin, which closely fits its 
every groove, ridge, and depression. It flares out some- 
thing like a funnel, the better to catch vibrations of sound. 
In man it is rarely movable, the muscles for that purpose 
not being large or well developed. 2 It is well supplied with 
blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and has at its lowest 
part a cushion of fat and fibrous tissue, being the part 
to which earrings are fastened. 3 The auricle gradually 
blends with the walls of the auditory canal. This canal is 
about one and one-fourth inches long, averages one-fourth 
inch in diameter, and has a downward, inward, and some- 
what forward direction. The outer one-third is cartilage ; 
the inner two-thirds, bone. Through this canal the drum- 
head which closes its lower end may be seen by means of 

1 Hearing and how to keep it. American Health Primer. Chas. H. 
Burnett, M.D. 

2 In animals the auricle in general is very movable, enabling them to per- 
ceive very faint sounds by turning the ear towards them. Even some human 
beings possess considerable power in this respect. 

3 Sometimes the cartilage dips down into the lobule and is liable to injury 
when the ear is pierced. Serious inflammation may thus be produced. 



294 HEARING. 

a reflecting mirror and an instrument called the ear specu- 
lum. The walls of this canal are lined by skin which is 
continuous with that of the auricle, and also with that 
over the drum-head, where the skin is very fine. The 
external ear has in the auditory canal an abundance of 
both sweat and sebaceous glands, and many hairs, which 




Fig. 85. 
The organs of heariDg. — 1, auricle ; 2, opening of ear, showing orifices of sebaceous 
glands; 3, external auditory canal ; 4, semi-circular canals; 5, auditory nerve, 
with facial nerve ; 6, membrana tympani, with the elastic fibrous membrane 
which forms its border ; 7, tympanic cavity ; 8, tensor muscle of the tympanum, 
the tendon being attached to the upper portion of the handle of the malleus ; 
9, upper portion of Eustachian tube. 

are coarse and stiff; also numerous ceruminous or wax- 
producing glands, 1 which secrete the wax of the ear, a 
sticky and bitter substance which tends to prevent the 
inroads of insects and the growth of fungi. 

395. The drum-head or membrana tympani (wrongly 
called the drum~), at the bottom of the auditory canal, is 

1 They are classified as modified sweat glands. 



HEARING. 295 

the partition between the external ear and the middle ear 
or drum cavity. It is almost circular, about one-fourth 
of an inch in diameter, and -25T 0I> an mcn thick, and con- 
sists of three layers : an outer one of skin, a middle one of 
fibrous tissue (to which the other layers are attached), 
and an inner one of mucous membrane, continuous with 
the lining membrane of the drum cavity, and with that 
of the Eustachian tube and the pharynx. Near the central 
line of the drum-head, and extending from above down- 
ward and backward, as seen through the external opening 
of the ear, is an opaque, white ridge, due to the attachment 
of the so-called handle of the hammer, one of the small 
bones of the ear, to the middle layer of the drum-head. 
So attached, the hammer readily vibrates inwards and out- 
wards with the vibrations of the drum-head. The general 
surface of the drum-head is smooth and of a pearly lustre. 

396. The middle ear, tympanum, or drum proper, is 
an air cavity, 1 about one-half inch in height and width, 
and about one-fourth of an inch deep, and is lined with 
mucous membrane, a continuation from that of the throat, 
through the Eustachian tube, which tube connects the 
drum cavity with the pharynx. Connected also with this 
cavity posteriorly, and lined with mucous membrane, are 
the " mastoid cells" or little air cavities in the mastoid 
portion of the temporal bone, 2 — the prominence immedi- 
ately behind the auricle. Through these cells, or through 
the roof of the drum cavity, which is very thin, and upon 
which the brain rests, an inflammation of the middle ear 
may extend to the brain. 

1 This cavity or drum in its construction somewhat resembles an ordinary 
snare or military drum, which is a reservoir of air, with two drum-heads capa- 
ble of vibration. In an ordinary drum air is admitted to the inside (drum 
cavity) by holes in the sides of the drum. Into the drum of the ear the air is 
admitted through the Eustachian tube. 

2 Supposed to be concerned in the resonance of the voice. 



296 HEARING. 

The most important contents of the drum cavity are 
the three ossicles or little bones of the ear ; viz., the 
malleus or hammer, the incus or anvil, and the stapes or 
stirrup, so named from a resemblance to these objects. 
Though weighing but a few grains, these bonelets have 
muscles, cartilages, and blood-vessels, and are so joined 
together that they form a bridge or " chain of bones " 
reaching across the drum cavity, from the drum-head to 
the internal ear, and by vibratory motion convey sounds 
to the fluid of the internal ear, in which float filaments of 
the auditory nerve. The bone nearest the drum-head, and 
the largest of the three, is the hammer, which is held in 
position by ligaments attached to the roof and outer wall 
of the drum cavity. Its handle is, as we have seen, fast- 
ened securely to the middle layer of the drum-head, while 
its head is articulated with the next bone, the anvil, which 
is also held in position by two ligaments, one attached to 
the upper and posterior wall of the drum cavity, and the 
other to the drum-head. If the handle of the hammer is 
pulled outwards, this joint between the hammer and anvil 
" unlocks," releasing the anvil, but if it is pushed in- 
wards, the anvil is carried with it. The anvil is joined to 
the stirrup or stapes, its long process or leg fitting into a 
depression in the head of the stirrup. The foot-rest of 
the stirrup is oval, and accurately fits into the oval window 
of the labyrinth, as the cavity of the internal ear is 
called. 

397. The Eustachian tube is a little more than an inch 
and a half long, and its direction from the mouth to the ear 
is upward, outward, and backward. Two-thirds of the 
lower portion of the tube is cartilaginous, while its upper 
wall is membraneous. The remainder of the tube is bone. 
In the act of swallowing, the anterior wall is pulled apart 
from the posterior by muscle fibres, offshoots from the 



HEARING. 297 

muscles of the palate, and air enters the Eustachian tube. 1 
Attached to the drum-head is a delicate prolongation of 
one of these offshoots, known as the tensor tympani, or 
stretcher of the drum. This tube supplies air to the 
drum cavity, is an escape tube for its secretions, and is a 
passage for a counter equalizing current of air, when the 
drum-head is driven suddenly in by the concussion of a 
blow or explosion. 2 Gunners, when a heavy cannon is 
about to be fired, open their mouths so that the force of 
the concussion may be less felt, and they sometimes stand 
upon tiptoe for a similar reason. 3 Closure of the Eusta- 
chian tube is liable to cause deafness by preventing free 
entrance and exit of air, and by the consequent increased 
pressure upon the drum-head. 

398. The internal ear comprises the labyrinth and por- 
tions of the auditory nerve connected with it. The laby- 
rinth is a hollow bony cavity. Its central portion, called 
the vestibule, is a sort of ante-room, the entrance to which, 
from the middle ear (i.e. the oval opening or window), is 
closed by the foot-rest of the stirrup bone. Its upper and 
forward portion, the cochlea or snail shell, is a tube coiled 
in a pyramidal way. Its lower and posterior portion 
constitutes the semicircular canals, three in number. 
The inside of the cochlea is divided into two passages 
or stairways, one above the other, and connecting at 

1 Repeated acts of swallowing are said to prevent much of the discomfort 
and pain in the ears consequent upon going down in diving hells, and ascend- 
ing mountains. 

2 " At certain points on the Rhine, it is, or was, the custom of the captain 
of the steamboat to fire a small cannon to exhibit the echo. When this has 
been done without due warning, it has proved more than once a cause of lasting 
deafness." 

3 If, while a bather's head is immersed, two stones or shells be clashed 
together under the water, the sounds perceived by him will be almost deafen- 
ing, and may permanently impair his hearing. Children should be extremely 
careful not to play this dangerous trick upon each other. 



298 



HEAHING. 



the upper portion of the cochlea. The lower part of 
the upper one opens into the vestibule near the oval 
opening or window, while the round window which is 
closed by a membrane, is near the corresponding part of 
the lower stairway. When the liquid in the labyrinth is 
compressed by the pressure inwards of the stirrup, it finds 
a point of relief at the round window, by the slight yield- 
ing of its membrane which occurs. The fluid which fills 




Fig. 86. (From photograph by Rudinger.) 

A. Right temporal bone, auricle and external canal removed. — MT, membrana 
tympani, or drum-head; M, handle of malleus showing through. 

B. Right temporal bone, inner side, petrous portion removed. — MT, the drum- 
head; OS, chain of bones in position. 

C. The bones of the ear. — 1, the malleus; 2, the incus; 3, the stapes. 

D. The relation of the bones of the ear to the bony portions of the internal ear.— 
1, the ossicles, foot-rest of stapes, attached to oval window; 2, the cochlea; 
3, the semi-circular canals ; 4, the upper end of Eustachian tube. The round 
window is not seen in the cut. 

the labyrinth is a part of the natural water of the brain 
and skull cavity. In this fluid float membraneous casts of 
the labyrinth, called the membraneous labyrinth. Distrib- 
uted in and upon them are the delicate filaments of the 
auditory nerve. Of this nerve there are two main 
branches, — the cochlear branch supplying the cochlea, and 
the vestibular branch supplying the remaining portion of 



HEARING. 299 

the membraneous labyrinth. The filaments of the coch- 
lear nerve are distributed in a very complex manner to 
the shelves of the cochlea, and end upon thousands of 
little hair-like cells, harp strings as it were, which are held 
in place upon the so-called organs or arches of Corti. 1 
The vibration of these hair-like cells is communicated to 
their connecting nerve filaments, and thus to the auditory 
nerve and brain. It is stated by physiologists that we 
hear noises with the vestibule nerves, and music with the 
cochlear ones. 

399. It is supposed that beside their connection with 
hearing, the semicircular canals have something to do 
with the coordination of muscular movements. Coordinate 
muscular movements appear to depend for their due per- 
formance upon a correct notion of our equilibrium or 
proper carriage of the body. Experiments upon birds 
and animals show that when these canals are injured, 
uncontrollable motions of the head ensue, followed by reel- 
ings and falls, and the inability to control the movements 
involved in walking or flying. But neither consciousness 
or the sense of hearing is impaired. Sometimes in per- 
sons with ear disease there occur similar manifestations 
on an attempt to walk, although in like manner con- 
sciousness is unimpaired. From the above circumstances 
some speak of a sense of equilibrium, and locate it in the 
semicircular canals. 

400. The physiology of hearing is briefly as follows. 
Sound waves are collected and strengthened by the auricle. 2 

1 There are said to be about three thousand arches of Corti in the human 
ear, each one of which is tuned to respond to the various musical sounds. 
■ 2 In the lower animals whose ears are very movable, the auricles are true 
collectors of sound. In man they are but slightly movable, and have to do 
with the quality of sound more especially, as any one can ascertain by gently 
pressing the auricle backward or forward when near a number of sounds, as of 
steam whistles, in a theatre, etc. 



300 HEARING. 

Passing down the external auditory canal, they strike the 
drum-head and cause it to vibrate and set in motion the 
ossicles, which in turn, through the foot-plate of the stir- 
rup bone, impart motion to the water of the labyrinth. 
Through this fluid the impressions of the sound waves are 
conveyed to the membraneous labyrinth, and thence, by the 
filaments of the auditory nerve which lie upon the mem- 
brane, to the brain. To be able to hear accurately even 
ordinary sounds, and to be able to train the sense of hear- 
ing, it is necessary that there should be an accurate arrange- 
ment of the various portions of the auditory apparatus, 
free movements of muscles, membranes, and bones, of the 
fluid of the labyrinth, an£ of the air outside and inside 
the drum cavity. 

401. Defective hearing may exist without the knowl- 
edge of the sufferer or of his friends. Of 570 school 
children examined in New York City, 1 76 were found to be 
deficient in hearing, either in one or both ears, while only 
one had been known by the teachers to be deaf, and . only 
19 out of the 76 were aware of aural defects. 2 Neglected 
inflammations of the throat, especially in those living in 
an impure atmosphere, eruptive diseases, such as scarlet 
fever and measles, where inflammation extends into the 
Eustachian tubes, may give rise to deafness. Decayed 
teeth or inflamed gums, by reflex irritation through a 
ganglion near the ear, sometimes produce earache and 

1 See circular of information of the Bureau of Education, No. 5. 1881. 

2 In conducting such tests the voice is considered a better test than the 
ticking of a watch. The examined, having one ear stopped by an assistant 
while the other ear is being examined, should stand with closed eyes at vari- 
ous distances from the examiner. The sentences repeated should be intelligible 
and frequently changed, and should contain words with hissing and guttural 
sounds, these not being easily understood when hearing is impaired. Though 
this mode of testing is the best, it is not as accurate as the test for defective 
vision. 



HEARING. 301 

temporary deafness. Blows upon the ear, always danger- 
ous, may cause temporary or permanent deafness. Accumu- 
lation of ear wax is a very common cause of deafness. 1 
Cleaning the ear too frequently with swabs, or the 
clearing out of wax with pin-heads, hair-pins, and other 
metallic implements, will be apt to excite inflammation, 2 
and may facilitate the growth of fungi. Neglected dis- 
eases of the middle ear may result in brain disease, by 
inflammation through the mastoid cells. Ear diseases may 
produce ringing and hissing sounds in the ear, which are 
very annoying. In certain forms of disease the individual's 
own voice sounds loud and disagreeable to him. 

402. Care of the ears. To prevent catching cold in the 
ears, they should be frequently but gently washed, and in 
very cold weather may be protected by covering with a 
loosely-fitting cap, tippet, or ear tabs. Pressure or over- 
heat will increase the perspiration, and soften the skin. 
Draughts of air from open windows in fast-moving trains 
should be avoided. Excessive smoking, or the habit of 
breathing through the mouth, are injurious, as they dry 
the mucous passages of the ear, and thus interfere with 
hearing. Improper clothing, overheated rooms, wet feet, 
etc., may cause inflammation of the ear. Prolonged bath- 
ing in cold water, or diving from a height, are to be 

1 The number of people is very large who apply at the eye and ear infir- 
maries for relief from deafness, and who obtain it after accumulated ear wax 
has been removed. 

2 The habit of probing and scraping the external ear is injurious ; it excites 
the ceruminous glands to pour out a superabundance of wax, which impairs 
hearing, and is an annoyance to those who desire to appear cleanly. A graver 
harm also may be done, such as wounding the delicate lining of the ear, or 
puncturing the drum membrane, or displacing the little bones. The best way 
to cleanse the external ear is to carefully inject warm water, or warm water 
with a little good soap dissolved in it, without any scraping, and little or no 
swabbing. Any substance which cannot be easily removed by syringing had 
better be left to the care of a physician . 



302 HEARING. 

avoided. When about to dive, or swim under water, 

a pledget of cotton in each ear is advisable, but the 

prolonged wearing of cotton in the ears makes them 
sensitive. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. How is hearing effected V 

2. What do you mean by the intensity of sound? the pitch? the 

quality ? 

3. What can you say of the capacity of the ear to distinguish differ- 

ent sounds ? 

4. What is the organ of hearing, and under what divisions is it 

studied ? 

5. What does the external ear comprise ? 

6. Describe the auricle and its use. 

7. Describe the auditory canal. 

8. What glands are located in the external ear, and what in the 

auricle ? 

9. Describe the membrana tympani or drum-head. 

10. W T hat is seen on looking at the drum-head by means of proper 

instruments ? 

11. What is the middle ear, and what does it comprise? 

12. Where are the mastoid cells ? 

13. Describe the contents of the drum cavity. 

14. How do the small bones of the cavity, and the fluid of the laby- 

rinth, act to enable us to hear ? 

15. Describe the Eustachian tube and its uses. 

16. What is the effect of its stoppage? 

17. What does the internal ear comprise? 

18. Describe the labyrinth, and its several divisions and contents. 

19. What is distributed throughout the labyrinth to convey the audi- 

tory impressions to the cerebrum? 

20. What is the belief of physiologists as to the function of the semi- 

circular canals, and on what is this belief founded ? 

21. Explain how it is that we hear, and what is essential for accurate 

hearing. 

22. What may be said as to the prevalence of defective hearing, and 

to what causes in general is it due ? 

23. What are some of the consequences of ear diseases ? 

24. What care should be taken of the ears, and what precautions used ? 



HEARING. 



803 



ANALYSIS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CHAPTER. 



HEARING. 



I. Sound 



II. Organs 

(or the ears 

and their 

appendages) 



How produced. 

Pitch. 

Composition. 



External ear 



Auricle. 
Auditory canal. 
Sweat glands. 
Sebaceous glands. 
Ceruminous glands. 
Hairs. 



Middle ear or 
drum 



tympani, 



. Internal ear 






' Drum-head, or membrana 
and its appendages. 
Drum cavity f jammer or malleus, 
and its contents 1 Aiml or incus. 

L Stirrup or stapes. 
Eustachian tube. 

Mastoid cells in mastoid portion of the 
temporal bone. 
. Muscles, nerves, and ligaments. 

Vestibule. 
Cochlea. 

Semicircular canals. 
Fluid. 

Membraneous casts. 
Arches of Corti. 

( Cochlear branch. 
1 Vestibular branch. 



f Labyrinth 



Auditorv nerve 



III. Physiology of. 



IV. Defects and Preservation. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
THE VOICE. 

403. All animals, except the very lowest types, possess 
some audible method of communicating with their fel- 
lows. 1 Some are incapable of producing more than one 
kind of sound, — a monotonous cry, — while the sounds 
emitted by others admit of considerable variation. The 
dog's notes of welcome to his master are very different 
from the harsher sounds with which he greets intrusive 
strangers. But to man alone is it given to express thoughts 
in articulate sounds, or speech. Between the higher and 
lower races of mankind there is a great difference as to 
the use of the voice, both in language and song, and its 
development is usually in direct relation to the intelli- 
gence of the races. Idiots, notwithstanding their posses- 
sion of a normal vocal apparatus, cannot usually converse 
intelligibly, but resemble some of the lower animals in 
the character of their vocal sounds. Parrots and other 

1 Among insects this is sometimes accomplished by the rapid vibrations 
of wings, the tapping of antennae or limbs upon some resonant object, or the 
rubbing of hard portions of the body against each other, the leg against the 
wing, for instance, as in the locust family. In some beetles the sound-pro- 
ducing organ is a kind of " rasp," and moves upon an adjoining surface. The 
peculiar voice of the "death-watch" beetle is produced by the insect raising 
itself on its legs and striking its chest against adjoining wood. This weird 
sound is referred to by Gay : "The solemn death-watch click' d the hour she 
died." Sir John Lubbock claims that bees can vary their hum so as to express 
their feelings. Certain fishes are said to produce sounds almost musical in 
character, by means of muscles which control the " swimming bladder," or by 
other apparatus. The common domestic fowl emits one kind of sound when 
quietly employed in scratching for food, and another when a hawk approaches. 
The crane has a marvellously constructed trumpet, for use especially at night 
and when taking long flights. 



THE VOICE. 305 

birds can be taught, by constant repetition, to repeat diffi- 
cult words and sentences, and to imitate cries, laughter, 
and sobbing ; but they do not originate, as far as we are 
aware, words or sentences, or any articulate expressions 
of the emotions. The development of speech is inti- 
mately connected w 7 ith the acuteness of the special senses, 
for it is through them that we gather impressions which 
develop into ideas, and thence into language. This is 
especially true of the hearing. It is only by persistent 
and pains-taking efforts, that some who have been born 
deaf have been taught in some degree to articulate and 
even converse, but, of course, without that delicate modu- 
lation of tone and accentuation and emphasis of words, 
which can only be given by a regulating ear. And the 
limited power thus laboriously acquired is, after all, 
exceedingly precarious and easily lost, (a.) 

404. The parts concerned in the production of voice in- 
clude the special or essential organ of the voice, the larynx, 
(Fig. 61), and as accessory, the windpipe, lungs, respiratory 
muscles, pharynx, mouth, and the nasal cavities. All of 
these parts are necessary for the proper modulation of the 
voice. The mechanism required for its production may be 
compared to that of a reed organ, the lungs corresponding 
to the bellows which supply air, the bronchial tubes and 
trachea to the wind chest which conducts the air, the 
larynx, with its vibrating cords, to the vibrating reed of an 
organ, and the pharynx, mouth, and the parts in connec- 
tion with them, to the body tube or resonant pipe which 
modifies the sounds produced. 1 

405. The larynx is situated in the middle and front 
part of the neck, and at the upper end of the trachea. It 

1 The author is indebted to the works of Dr. Elsberg of New York, and of 
Dr. Cohen of Philadelphia, for some of the definitions and suggestions in the 
text. 



306 THE VOICE. 

is somewhat triangular in shape, and from its resemblance 
to a box, it is sometimes spoken of as the " voice-box. " 
Its framework is cartilaginous, and is lined with mucous 
membrane, continuous with that of the pharynx and wind- 
pipe. This framework is composed mainly of four cartilages 
(Fig. 34) joined together. The largest of the four is the 
thyroid, or shield cartilage, a broad, thin plate, shaped some- 
thing like a cover of a half-open book, and joined to the 
hyoid bone above by a membrane. The back of the book 
represents the ridge of the thyroid cartilage, as seen or 
felt in front of the neck, and familiarly known as Adam's 
apple. Below the thyroid cartilage, and attached to it by 
an encircling membrane, is the second of the four, or the 
cricoid, which is shaped like a seal ring, with the narrow 
portion in front. Lastly, upon the posterior and upper 
surface of the cricoid are two slight eminences for articu- 
lation, by ball-and-socket joints, with two pyramidal and 
very movable cartilages, called the arytenoids. 1 

Surmounting the arytenoid cartilages are two Yevy 
small ones, known as the supra-arytenoids or buffer carti- 
lages, which deaden and distribute pressure, and serve to 
prevent injury to the larynx, especially in swallowing. 
Attached by its lower and narrow end to the inner and 
upper part of the thyroid cartilage is the epiglottis, or cover 
cartilage, shaped something like a lilac leaf, whose principal 
function it is to assist in preventing the entrance of food or 
other articles into the larynx during the act of swallowing. 
At such times the larynx is raised, its walls are approxi- 
mated, and the epiglottis, as a lid, covers the opening of 
the glottis. On looking into the throat during a full inspir- 
ation, the rounded, free, and upper edge of the epiglottis is 
sometimes visible behind the base of the tongue. Within 

1 I.e., like a pitcher, so called because when joined together they resemble 
the beak or mouth of a pitcher. 



THE VOICE. 307 

the folds of the mucous membrane, stretching from the epi- 
glottis to the arytenoids, are two other cartilages, long and 
sickle-shaped, termed " prop " cartilages, which assist in 
keeping the larynx open. 

406. In the production of voice the vocal cords and 
the muscles of the larynx are most intimately concerned. 
The interior of the larynx has on each side, at about its 
centre, a pair of membraneous and horizontal projections, 
with free borders, called the superior and inferior vocal 
cords, or bands. 1 The space between the right and left 
vocal cords is the " chink " of the glottis, and that 
between each superior and inferior band, the ventricle. 
The vocal cords are stretched across the larynx from 
before backward. The upper, or superior pair, are mere 
folds of membrane. They are less prominent and more 
inelastic than the inferior, and are called the ventricular 
bands, or false vocal cords, because they are not concerned 
in the production of voice. The inferior, or true vocal 
cords, have elastic borders, which are attached in front to 
the angle in the thyroid cartilage, just below the attach- 
ment of the epiglottis, and are there comparatively immov- 
able, while posteriorly they are attached to the very mov- 
able arytenoid cartilages. 

407. It is by the contraction and relaxation of these 
inferior cords or bands that the opening of the glottis is 
enlarged or diminished in size during respiration, and for 
the production of voice. 2 The tension and degree of 

1 The term ' ' cord ' ' in common use is misleading, for the vocal cords are 
not strings like those of the piano or harp, hut horizontal ligamentous bands. 
Their arrangement allows the edges or margins to he sharply defined and to 
vibrate more or less as the air passes over them. 

2 " You know musical chords or strings, as those of the guitar, violin, etc., 
are attached only at their two ends, so that they can freely vibrate between ; 
the tongues or reeds of organs, accordeons, clarionettes, and all other artificial 
reed instruments, are usually attached at one end only, so that they have three 



308 



THE VOICE. 



approximation of the cords is 
muscles, and thus is produced 




Fig. 87. 
Posterior view of larynx. — T, base of tongue. 
TH, upper part of tbyroid cartilage (the epi- 
glottis is seen between the upper portions of 
this cartilage and behind the tongue. CC, 
the cricoid cartilage. AC, arytenoid carti- 
lages, hid in part by muscles. TR, trachea. 
1 and 2, nerves of lai-ynx, branches distri- 
buted to the tongue, to the epiglottis and 
the folds of membrane between the epiglot- 
tis and arytenoids; and to muscles control- 
ling the action of the cricoid and arytenoid 
cartilages. 



variously modified through 
in part the various differ- 
ences of sound which 
make up the human voice. 
Some of the muscles of 
the larynx move and ro- 
tate the arytenoids out- 
wardly, thus separating 
the vocal cords, and wid- 
ening the chink of the 
glottis. Others move and 
rotate the arytenoids in- 
wardly, thus approximat- 
ing the vocal cords, and, 
in a varying degree, 
closing the glottis. The 
remaining muscles of the 
larynx serve either to 
regulate the tension of 
the cords, or are con- 
cerned in respiration, or 
act upon the epiglottis 
during the act of swallow- 
ing. The nerves which 
supply the mucous mem- 
brane of the larynx with 



free edges ; but the human reeds or vocal bands are attached on three sides 
and have only one free edge. Those of you who know what a large number of 
reed or organ pipes are needed in the organ made by man, to produce the notes 
of varying pitch and timbre, cannot fail to be struck with astonishment at the 
fact that in the organ in man's body a single reed-pipe, the laryiix — by a won- 
derful power of variation inherent in itself — suffices for the production of the 
most various sounds. No musical instrument has ever been constructed by 
man that approaches in perfection or effectiveness that of the human voice." 
— The Throat and its Functions. Louis Elsberg, A.M., M.D. 




THE VOICE. 309 

sensibility and the muscles with motor power are four 
in number. 

408. Before the introduction and use of the laryngo- 
scope there was much uncertainty as to the mechanism for 
the production of voice. 1 An examination of the interior 
of the larynx with this instrument during ordinary respi- 
ration shows the chink of the glottis to be quite widely 
open during inspiration, but much 
narrower during expiration, for 
in the latter case the muscles of 
the larynx are passive, air being 
gently forced out. But it is 
during vocalization that the vocal 
cords are particularly well de- 
fined. Speech is shown by the Fig - 88> 

x -i View of the interior of the larynx 

larynffOSCOpe tO be effected dur- during respiration. Rings of the 

1/0 *- trachea seen through the laryn- 

ing expiration Only, though harsh geal opening, the vocal cords(rep- 

° x *> ' ° resented in white) hemg apart. 

sounds may be formed during in- 
spiration. As soon as an attempt is made to produce a 
sound, the cords are thrown into action. They are made 
tense, and are closely approximated in the production of 
high musical notes or shrill sounds, and are relaxed and 
moved further apart during the emission of sounds opposite 
to these. 

409. Associated with the varying degree of approxima- 
tion and tension of the cords are their vibratory motions 
as the air passes between them. All sounds are produced 

1 An oval or round mirror attached to a long handle, which, placed in the 
back and upper part of the throat reflects the interior of the larynx, and, under 
favorable conditions, a portion of the trachea. This instrument originated from 
the observations of the celebrated singing teacher, Garcia, upon himself, and 
the investigations of two Austrian physicians, Turck and Czermak. The first 
successful demonstration of the action of the vocal cords is said to have been 
made by Garcia in 1854. 




310 THE VOICE. 

by wave-like vibrations of the air imparted to it by vibra- 
tory motions of various kinds. Noises, for example, are 
produced by waves of sound which follow one another in 
an irregular and confused manner, while in music the se- 
quence is regular, producing the rhythmical sounds known 
as musical notes. 1 For the production of the simplest 
vocal sound the cords must be 
brought into close approximation, 
and must be capable of easy vibra- 
tion. If they cannot so approach 
each other, whispering results. If 
they are not sufficiently smooth or 
straight, or if their action is irregu- 
Fig 89 lar, or they have upon their edges 

The position of the vocal bands flakes of mucus, the tones become 

during phonation. ' 

rough and hoarse in character. 2 
410. The variations in vocal sounds depend mainly upon 
their intensity, pitch, and quality. Intensity, or loudness, 
depends upon the elasticity of the vocal bands and the 
force of the escaping air. The more relaxed the bands 
are, and the stronger the current of air over them, the 
larger are the sound-waves, and the louder the sounds 
produced. 

Differences in pitch depend upon the rapidity with 
which the bands vibrate. The more rapid the vibrations, 
and the closer the cords are approximated, the higher the 

1 The tones or notes of musical instruments are caused either by striking or 
rubbing with a bow against sharp edges, or by blowing against elastic tongues 
or vibrators. The character of the tones produced depends upon the nature 
of the stroke, the place struck, and the relative density, rigidity, and elasticity 
of the edge or tongue. 

2 The varying tones produced through elastic bands more or less parallel 
with each other, and with edges of varying rigidity, may be illustrated by 
blowing through glass tubes of varying length and calibre, to the opposite 
ends of which two pieces of thin rubber cloth are firmly fastened, the free 
edges being parallel or nearly so. 



THE VOICE. 311 

pitch. The slower they are, and the less closely the cords 
approximate, the lower the sound. 

The quality, or timbre, is that characteristic by which 
we can distinguish different voices. Through this the 
voices of our friends are recognized even though their 
features may be concealed. As the violinist becomes 
attached to a certain violin because of its peculiar tone, or 
the pianist to his piano, so we learn to value the quality of 
certain voices. Quality is of a composite nature, and is 
due to the more or less harmonious relations between 
intensity, pitch, and other characteristics of sound, and 
depends largely upon the condition of the resonant cavi- 
ties of the throat, mouth, and nose. Enlarged tonsils, loss 
of teeth, dryness of the mucous membrane, cleft palate, 
hair lip, and other defects, change the quality of vocal 
sounds. Our vowel sounds are clearly enunciated only 
when the sounding breath is not obstructed above the 
larynx in its outward passage. With the mouth wide 
open, only an aspirate sound can be made by the vocal 
bands. Consonant sounds result when there is an obstruc- 
tion by the lips, tongue, teeth, etc., to the outward motion 
of the air. The position of the tongue and of the soft 
palate favor the emission of certain sounds. A " nasal 
twang" is the result of talking, or of emitting sounds, with 
the nose or the passages thereto, from the lungs, more or 
less obstructed. It is not so much because we talk 
through the nose, as because we do not use the nasal vent 
with sufficient freedom. It is called a "nasal twang," 
therefore, because the closed or contracted nasal apertures 
have caused the unpleasant modification of the sound. 
The different qualities of voice depend not only upon nat- 
ural variations in the larynx and the accessory organs of 
the voice, but also upon the degree of culture or of neglect 
and abuse to which the voice and its organs have been 



312 THE VOICE. 

subjected. 1 By proper training the quality of the voice 
may be very much improved. In some persons it is so 
perfectly modulated, that, while the voice is full and clear, 
it never seems too high, too low, too harsh, or too flat. 2 
There is also a property of voice known as reach, i.e., 
"the penetrant power of a sound over distances and 
obstacles, such as other sounds, and is due to the purity of 
the tone, which in its turn is dependent on the accuracy 
with which it is produced." At the Peace Jubilee in 
Boston, in 1869, Madame Parepa Rosa's voice was distin- 
guishable above those of an accompanying chorus of nearly 
12,000 singers, an orchestra of over 1,000 instruments, 
and in a hall where the audience consisted of over 40,000 
people. The ordinary range or compass of the voice is 
about two octaves, seldom less than one, or more than two 
and a half. In some great singers the range is three or 
three and a half. 3 

411. The peculiar mode of speaking known as ventril- 
oquism is a curious modification of the voice, and is not, as 
the word literally means, "talking from the stomach." 

1 Among the Greeks for the training of the voice there were three sets of 
teachers, the first to develop power and range of voice, the second to improve 
the quality, the third to teach modulation and inflection. 

2 The capabilities of some voices are almost incredible. It is related by- 
Mrs. Seiler, in her manual on "The Voice in Singing," that the singer, Fari- 
nelli, once competed with a trumpeter who accompanied him in an Aria : 
"After both had several times dwelt on notes in which each sought to excel 
the other in power and duration, they prolonged a note with a double trill in 
thirds, which they continued until both seemed to be exhausted. At last the 
trumpeter gave up, entirely out of breath, while Farinelli, without taking 
breath, prolonged the note with renewed volume of sound trilling, and ending 
finally with the most difficult of roulades." 

3 " The entire compass of the human voice exceeds five octaves, for there 
have been bassos, as Grosser, Fischer, etc., who could sing the contra F of 40 
vibrations with ease and power, and sopranos like Carlotta Patti and Christine 
Nilsson go up with ease to the high F of 1400 vibrations, while the ' Bastar- 
della ' and Mrs. Becker of St. Petersburg could go up to and beyond the still 
higher C of 2000 vibrations."— The Throat and its Functions. Elsberg. 



THE VOICE. 313 

The power of the ventriloquist is sufficiently marvellous 
without our deriving it from a still more marvellous source. 
By some occult management of the vocal organs, by great 
skill in mimicry, and by considerable address in appealing 
to the imagination, different human voices, or animal 
cries, or other noises, are caused by the ventriloquist to 
seem to issue from persons or objects outside of him, or 
from a distance, without his apparently moving his lips. 
It is this remarkable power which will doubtless account 
for many of the wonderful responses which are said to 
have been made by the ancient oracles. 1 

412. The chief varieties of voice are four in number ; 
viz., the bass and tenor in the male sex, and the contralto 
or alto, and the soprano, in the female. There is a variety 
of voice between the bass and tenor known as the baritone, 
and one between the alto and soprano called the mezzo- 
soprano. Ordinarily the strength and beauty of bass and 
contralto voices are in the lower notes, and of soprano 
and tenor in the higher, for bass singers may reach as high 
notes as tenors, and alto singers as sopranos, or vice versa, 
but they do not attain the proper clearness and richness of 
tone. A falsetto voice is one pitched above its natural 
compass. In early childhood the character of the voice is 
about the same in both sexes. The quality especially of 

1 " From the observations of Miiller and Colombat, it seems that the essential 
mechanical parts of the process of ventriloquism consist in taking a full inspi- 
ration, then keeping the muscles of the chest and neck fixed, and speaking with 
the mouth almost closed, and the lips and lower jaw as motionless as possible, 
while air is very slowly expired through a very narrow glottis, care being 
taken, also, that none of the expired air passes through the nose. But, as 
observed by Miiller, much of the ventriloquist's skill in imitating the voices 
coming from particular directions, consists in deceiving other senses than hear- 
ing. We never distinguish very readily the direction in which sounds reach 
our ear ; and when our attention is directed to a particular point, our imagina- 
tion is very apt to refer to that point whatever sounds we may hear." — Hand- 
book of Physiology. Kirke. 



314 THE VOICE. 

the soprano voice in boys is often prized in the rendering 
of church music. At about the age of fourteen years the 
boy's voice begins to change, or " crack " as it is called. 
The larynx increases in size, the power of regulating its 
muscular control is diminished, and the falsetto voice is 
liable to break in upon the ordinary voice, especially in 
declaiming and singing. The voices of girls at about the 
same age change somewhat. They develop strength and 
compass, the quality remaining about the same. But with 
both sexes at this period there should be no systematic culti- 
vation of the voice. 

413. Weak and improperly modulated voices can be 
improved by proper care and culture. To this end all 
diseased conditions, such as enlarged tonsils, a very relaxed 
soft palate, nasal or pharyngeal catarrh, defective teeth, 
etc., should be remedied, and also muscular exercises 
adapted to the wants of each individual, should be system- 
atically practised. The muscles of the diaphragm, and 
those of the chest, may be exercised by occasional full res- 
pirations, and by the hands being placed from time to time 
against a wall, and the chest moved forcibly towards and 
away from the wall. " The muscles of the larynx are best 
exercised by systematic singing exercises on the tones at or 
near the middle of the ordinary compass of the individual." 
Repetitions of the act of swallowing, and various move- 
ments of the lips, cheeks, and tongue, are valuable. Wind 
instruments adapted to the strength of the performer are 
also of service in some instances. If they are too power- 
ful, or are used excessively, injury to the lungs is liable to 
result. In particular the voice should be frequently used 
in a natural and proper manner. Spasmodic and prolonged 
use, especially if the voice is pitched too high, strains the 
vocal apparatus, and produces inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the throat. The forced and unnecessary res- 



THE VOICE. 315 

pirations, especially of the chest or thoracic variety, some- 
times indulged in by public speakers and singers, place the 
thorax and larynx in tiresome and constrained positions, 
thus interfering with the natural use of the voice, and serv- 
ing to concentrate the thoughts upon the delivery alone. 
In fact the training of the voice should begin in childhood, 
when the vocal organs are most pliable. It should be 
entrusted to competent teachers, and like other forms of 
muscular exercise should be systematically and daily pur- 
sued, but never to the point of tiring. It is related of a 
celebrated musician that, in answer to an inquiry why he 
practised so systematically, he replied, "If I neglect to 
practise one day, I notice it ; if for two days, my friends 
notice it ; and if for three, the public notice it." 

Even in adult life, the strength and quality of the voice 
may be improved, and clergymen, actors, and other public 
speakers have had their usefulness increased by lessons 
received quite late in life in elocution and the care of the 
voice, (a.) 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is to be said of the audible means of communication of ani- 

mals and men, and on what does its development depend? 
Illustrate. 

2. With what is the development of speech intimately connected? 

Illustrate. 

3. What parts of the body are concerned in the production of voice ? 

4. Which is the special or essential organ of voice ? 

5. Describe the larynx, its cartilages, vocal cords, and muscles. 

6. How are the differences of sound which make up the voice pro- 

duced ? 

7. How has the mechanism for this purpose been ascertained ? 

8. What does an examination of the interior of the larynx with the 

laryngoscope reveal ? 

9. How are sounds produced, and why are some sounds musical and 

others not? 



316 THE VOICE. 

10. What causes the differences in their intensity ? pitch ? 

11. What is the quality of a voice, and on what does it depend? 

12. What is ventriloquism ? 

13. What is reach? 

14. What is said of the range or compass of the human voice? 

15. What are the chief varieties of voice? 

16. How and when do the voices of boys and girls change? 

17. How is the voice modulated to produce the various articulate 

sounds ? 

18. What is to be said of nasal sounds? of clearness of voice? 

19. What general directions are there for the care and culture of the 

voice ? 



ANALYSIS. 



317 



ANALYSIS OF THE NINETEENTH CHAPTER. 



THE VOICE. 



I. Object, and among whom most developed. 

Thyroid. 
Cricoid. 

Two arytenoids. 
Cartilages .. .-{ Two supra-ary- 
tenoids. 
Two prop. 
b Epiglottis. 

Vocal cords., i Superior or false. 
( Interior or true. 

Chink of the glottis. 
Muscles and nerves. 
Action and how examined. 



II. Organs 



Essential, — Larynx 



s Accessory •{ 



f Lungs 



Respiratory muscles. 



I 



Air passages 



f The trachea. 
I Pharynx. 



III. How Produced. 



M 

U T 



Mouth and its contents. 
Nasal cavities. 



r Harsh and musical. 
IV. Sounds . . -J Intensity. Pitch. Quality. 
I Articulate ^ at ^ al - 



Obstructed. 



V. Reach. 

VI. Range or Compass. 
VII. Ventriloquism. 



As to age 
VIII. Varieties -l As to sex 
Falsetto 



IX. Care and Culture. 



f Bass. 
Male . . . -j Baritone. 

[ Tenor. 
f Alto. 
Female . *l Mezzo-soprano. 
[_ Soprano. 



EMEEGEWCIES. 



CHAPTER XX. 

EMERGENCIES. 

The following directions as to the care of the injured are in- 
tended to increase the efficiency of those who may wish to assist 
them, and are of especial value to any one who has some knowl- 
edge of anatomy, physiology, and lrygiene. It is to be under- 
stood that these directions are not full enough to enable the 
laity to undertake the prolonged treatment of a case, and that 
whenever it is practicable a physician is to be sent for and the 
injured person given into his charge. When called, the doctor 
should be informed of the nature of the accident, that he may 
bring with him the proper appliances and restoratives. Such 
directions as the following, carefulh' observed, will often save 
life. As Dr. D. Hayes Agnew of Philadelphia puts it, " every 
surgeon knows full well that in many cases of injury the crisis 
is reached before the patient arrives at the hospital gate, and 
the lack of instructed aid at first often turns the table against 
him." There have been instances also where officiousness on 
the part of some bystander has increased the danger of the in- 
jured person. 1 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

First. Do not join the crowd assembled about an injured 
person unless you can be of service ; for, as the throng increases 
in numbers and presses more closely about the sufferer, his 
chances for recoveiy are lessened. His air supply is dimin- 
ished, and the efforts of those assisting him are interfered with. 

1 To replace officiousness with efficiency is the aim of the Esmarch Samari- 
tan Schools in Germany, of the St. John Ambulance Association of England, 
and of such societies in this country as the Society for Instruction in First Aid 
to the Injured of Xew York and Brooklyn. 



322 EMERGENCIES. 

At least ten feet of space on ever}* side of the injured person 
should be kept free from everybody, except those actually con- 
cerned in caring for him. 

Secoyid. When you withdraw, take as many idlers as you 
can with } t ou. If no one has assumed charge of the case, take 
it in hand, going quickly but calmly to work ; but, if there is 
already a leader, offer him 3-0111' assistance, being willing to go 
for a doctor, blankets, stimulants, etc., or do whatever is de- 
sired. Do not argue with others who are assisting as to 
methods of work, for delay imperils the life of the one you 
desire to save. On the other hand, do not proceed too rapidly. 
For example, in the excitement of the moment, it not infre- 
quently happens that attempts are made to administer stimu- 
lants before the injured person can swallow. 

Third. The person before you may be partially or entirely 
unconscious. Unconsciousness is the result of injury to the 
brain b} T shock, compression from fracture of the skull, by 
apoplexy, epilepsy, or other disease of the brain, by narcotic 
poisons such as opium, morphine, chloroform, or alcohol, by 
loss of blood, or by blood poisoning, as in some forms of kid- 
ney disease. If there is entire insensibility, an arm when lifted 
and let gently fall offers no muscular resistance, but is " a dead 
weight" ; the pupil of the eye does not contract on exposure to 
light ; the eyeball itself is not sensitive when touched, and no 
effort even at closing the lids occurs when the operator's 
finger is brought quickly towards the eye. Whereas, if the 
unconsciousness is partial or is feigned, as in some cases of so- 
called hysteria, the conditions are opposite. 

Fourth. Restoration to consciousness is effected differently, 
depending upon the case. In "faint" or "shock," a few 
minutes of rest may suffice, the patient being laid upon his 
back, with all impediments to free breathing removed. A dash 
of cold water upon the face, tickling of the nostrils, and the 
application to them of an open bottle of smelling-salts or am- 
monia (spirits of hartshorn) may be necessar}'. Intoxicated 
persons sometimes require more vigorous measures, such as 



EMERGENCIES. 323 

slapping of the face, tickling or slapping of the soles of the 
feet, and twisting of the hair. But it must be remembered that 
the effects of drink may be associated with severe forms of un- 
consciousness, and vigorous restorative measures applied to 
one insensible from apoplexy, or even shock, imperil life. Un- 
consciousness from suffocation may demand attempts at estab- 
lishing respiration, to be hereafter described. 

When the skin is cold, restore warmth by gentle friction 
with the hands, and applications of heated flannels and bot- 
tles filled with hot water, especially to the feet, about the 
body, and in the armpits. If the head is very hot, cold water 
or pieces of ice may be applied to it. The injured person gen- 
erally needs abundance of air, and it may be necessary to create 
a current by the use of a fan ; but, at the first evidence of 
chilliness, the patient should be covered with blankets, shawls, 
coats, etc., but not so heavily as to induce perspiration. If 
the person is able to swallow, give a sip, every few minutes, of 
a mixture of aromatic spirits of ammonia, thirty drops to a 
wineglassful of water, or of brandy or whiskey, one part to 
four or five of water. If wine be used, a much larger amount 
is necessary. 

Fifth. The examination of an injured person, especially when 
insensible, is to be conducted with the greatest care. Eough 
handling may open a wound in which bleeding had ceased, and 
start a hemorrhage which may not be readily controlled, or a 
jagged end of a broken bone may be made to wound seriously 
an important blood vessel or nerve, or severe pain and distress 
may be otherwise induced. Note particularly the position of 
the bod}', whether the face is flushed or pale, whether the 
pupils respond to light, what is the state of the respiration, 
whether quiet and natural or more or less noisy or difficult, and 
the condition of the pulse whether weak or strong. 1 

1 The condition of the pulse is indicated by the comparative ease or diffi- 
culty with which the flow of blood in an artery can be stopped by the pressure 
of the finger. Examine the entire body carefully in your search for fractures, 
wounds, unusual swellings, or depressions. 



324 EMERGENCIES. 

Sixth. To remove an injured person, use a stretcher, i.e., 
a portable bed made for the purpose, or a strong shawl or sheet 
doubled and suspended between two poles, a wide board, a door, 
a window shutter, a ladder, or a small cot bedstead. If the 
distance is short, and a litter cannot be obtained, the patient 
may be carried by two persons so locking their arms together 
that a chair is improvised. If the distance is great, an ambu- 
lance may be devised by placing one or more mattresses in some 
covered vehicle of sufficient size. In lifting an injured person, 
three attendants are generally required : two to support the 
body, while one attends to the injured part. When about to 
convey by a stretcher, depute some one to keep back the crowd, 
while another goes before to secure a comfortable shelter. 
It is often advisable to cover the face of the injured one with 
a handkerchief, veil, or other light article, to prevent the un- 
comfortable feeling of being stared at. He should be instructed 
not to answer the questions of mere curiosity seekers. 

SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 

Suffocation, Drowning, etc. — Artificial Respiration. There 
is a group of accidents in which death results from the 
deprivation of air. The poisonous carbonic acid gas, which 
ought to escape from the lungs during the process of breathing, 
and be replaced by the oxygen of the air, accumulates in the 
blood, deadens the activity of the nerve centres of the brain, 
breathing ceases, and, later on, the heart ceases to beat. The 
group comprises cases of suffocation, i.e., smothering, hanging, 
choking, and drowning. Where there is insensibility or appar- 
ent death, resort must be had to artificial respiration, the prac- 
tice of which may be readily understood by the following rules. 1 
At the same time this process is being carried out, warmth may 
be imparted to the body by friction, and in cases of drowning, by 
substituting dry clothing or warm blankets for wet garments. 

1 In accidents of this kind the face is generally swollen and of a bluish 
color. Sometimes the eyes and tongue protrude. About the mouth is more 
or less mucus, occasionally streaked with blood. 



EMERGENCIES. 325 

Rule I. Establish and maintain a free entrance for air into 
the wind/pipe. The first part of this direction is complied with 
by removing tight clothing or other impediment from the face, 
neck, and chest, and by emptying the mouth, throat, and air 
passages. This latter process is accomplished by having the 
body placed for a few seconds on an inclined plane, with the 
head and face downwards. The operator, then opening the 
mouth, draws the tongue forwards, holding it by means of a 
handkerchief, and with the index finger of the other hand, cov- 
ered with a handkerchief, sweeps around the mouth and throat, 
dislodging water, mucus, or other substance which may pre- 
vent the ingress of air. 1 The inclined position of the body 
favors the escape of any water that may be in the lungs or 
stomach. 

The second part of the above direction is accomplished by 
keeping the tongue from falling back into the mouth until 
breathing is fully established, letting an assistant hold it with 
its tip on a level with, or a little beyond, the front teeth, or by 
fastening it there with an elastic band under the chin. 

Rule II. Place the body in the most favorable position for the 
full expansion of the chest. This is in general upon the back, 
with the head and body inclined a little higher than the feet, 
and with a coat or two, shawls, a pile of sand or seaweed, 
under the back and between the shoulders, so as to throw out 
the ribs, and afford the greatest capacity to the chest. 2 

1 When accidents occur, medical assistance should be sought immediately, 
and, in cases of drowning, blankets and dry clothing sent for. Anything 
that impedes the breathing should be rapidly removed by cutting or tearing. 
Valuable time is lost by endeavoring to untie or unbutton. To hold a body 
up by the heels, so that the water (in cases of drowning) may run out, is 
unnecessary. To roll a body upon a barrel is a barbarous custom, is attended 
with the danger of injury to internal organs, and is not to be tolerated. It 
is seldom that any large quantity of water enters the lungs or stomach. In- 
clining the body upon a board or shutter, or by the aid of the hands alone is 
sufficient. 

2 This position is the one made use of in Sylvester's method of resuscitation. 
In the Michigan, and other methods to be hereafter mentioned, resuscitation 
is accomplished with the face downwards, or with the body lying horizontally 



326 EMERGENCIES. 

Rule III. Imitate the natural movements of respiration, i.e., 
the chest is made to expand and contract slowly and methodi- 
cally about fifteen times a minute, though at first the movements 
should not be more than four or five a minute, gradually in- 
creasing to fifteen. If suffocation is partial, as is sometimes 
the case in hanging, or smothering b}' irritating gases, or when 
the body has been immersed in water but a very short time, 
simple compression with the hands of the lower portions of the 
lateral chest walls, alternating with relief from pressure by 
removing the hands, associated with draughts of air and with 
dashes of cold water (or cold and hot alternately) upon the 
face, the tickling of the nostrils with a feather or the end of .a 
handkerchief, or placing nmmonia to the nostrils, tend to excite 
inspiration, and may be sufficient. If the case is a severe one, 
in addition to the above measures, one or other of the so-called 
methods of artificial respiration is to be used. The one most 
commonly used is " Sylvester's Method," viz. : the operator 
stands at the head of the patient, grasps both arms at or near 
the elbows, draws them steadily upwards until they meet above 
the head (thus air is drawn into the lungs by expansion of the 
chest) , where the}- are kept for a moment, and then returned 
to the sides. Then gentle and firm pressure is exerted against 
the sides of the chest for a moment, aided, if possible, by 
pressure upon the breast bone, thus expelling foul air from 
the lungs. These movements are repeated alternately until 
breathing is restored, when attention is especially given to the 
establishment of circulation and warmth. 

Eule IV. Maintain the breathing now established by inducing 
circulation and warmth and by proper after-treatment. Though 
the friction of the surface of the body by attendants, and the 
application of warm, diy blankets, may have been of some 
service, still, the warmth of the body must be promoted by 

on the side, or on the back, with the head lower than the trunk. The princi- 
pal methods of resuscitation are given, that the operator may vary from one 
to another if he finds himself wearied by the pursuance of any one. The prin- 
ciples involved in all are essentially the same. 



EMERGENCIES. 327 

more friction under the blankets, and by the application of hot 
flannels, bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, etc., 
to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, to the sides, between the 
thighs, and to the feet. If a house is close by, and the patient 
can be carried to it safely, if warmth is not fully established, a 
warm bath may be given, the body being immersed to the neck 
for not more than five or six minutes. 1 

As the patient is able to swallow, administer slowly sips of 
hot coffee, of wine, or warm brandy and water, or of one 
part of aromatic spirits of ammonia to five of water. Keep him 
quiet and warm in bed, in a well- ventilated room, and encour- 
age sleep. Sometimes, even after he seems on the road to re- 
covery, distressed breathing will occur from a secondary con- 
gestion of the weakened lungs, brought on by excitement or 
moving about too much. Large mustard plasters applied to 
the chest will help to relieve this condition. In conclusion, all 
efforts to induce breathing and promote warmth and circulation 
in suffocated persons should be persisted in for at least one hour. 
There are a number of recorded instances in which life has been 
restored after more than an hour's work. 2 

In "Marshall Hall's Method," the patient is placed face downwards, and 
gentle pressure exerted upon the back (to expel foul air from the lungs), then 
he is rolled over upon the side, or a little beyond, to draw air into the lungs. 

1 Efforts at resuscitation should be begun wherever the patient is found. 
Lose no time in endeavoring to move him. After he does breath, carry him 
promptly to a house or under cover. 

2 How long a person may be immersed in water and be resuscitated is not 
definitely known, and depends on various circumstances. If water has passed 
into the throat, air is excluded, and suffocation is prompt. So also if the 
drowned person has been tossed about in the surf. On the other hand, if the 
drowning person is able to control respiration, and lift his head occasionally 
above the surface, life will be prolonged, and the chances for resuscitation are 
increased. Such also is the case if fainting occurs, as respiration and the heart's 
action cease through the action of the nervous system, and there are conse- 
quently no respiratory or circulatory efforts demanding air for the purification 
of the blood. It may be noted here that many persons, even good swimmers, 
are drowned by reason of being seized with cramps or spasmodic contractions 
of muscles which cannot be controlled. Persons who are subject to cramps or 
twitching of the muscles, or who are debilitated, should not venture into water 
beyond their depth. 



328 EMERGENCIES. 

These respective movements are alternately used, each occupying about four 
seconds, or used together, occurring fifteen times in a minute. The " Michigan 
Method " has the advantage that it can he used by one operator (the tongue of 
the patient not being held), and is of value if the person operated upon can be 
readily lifted by the operator. It is as follows : — 

Instantly loosen or cut apart all neck and waist bands. Place the patient 
on his face. Bestride the body, with your face towards his head. Lock your 
fingers together under his abdomen, raise the body as high as you can without 
lifting the forehead off the ground, give it a smart jerk to dislodge water and 
mucus from throat and windpipe. Hold the body suspended long enough to 
count one, two, three, four, five, repeating the jerk more gently two or three 
times. Then, lower the body, and grasp the shoulders by the clothing or by 
your fingers in his armpits, and raise the chest as high as you can, without lift- 
ing the head quite off the ground, and hold it there long enough to count slowly 
one, two, three. Replace him on the ground with his forehead on his flexed 
arm, the neck straightened out, and the mouth and nose free. Place your 
elbows against your knees (on the inner side) and your hands upon the sides 
of his chest over the lower ribs, and press downward and inward with increas- 
ing force, long enough to count slowly one, two. Then suddenly let go; grasp 
the shoulders as before. Repeat the above movements alternately with regu- 
larity ten to fifteen times a minute for an hour at least, unless breathing is 
restored sooner. In restoring animal heat, warm the head nearly as fast as 
the body, lest convulsions come on. Before natural breathing is fully restored, 
do not let the patient lie on his back unless some person holds the tongue for- 
ward. The tongue, by falling back, may close the windpipe, and cause fatal 
choking. 

" Satterthwaite's Method " is as follows : " In the first place, you must try 
and get something dry and warm to exchange for the wet clothing. Send at 
once for hot water, or have a fire built, into which bits of metal or stones may 
be thrown and heated, and by which you may warm blankets or the bystanders' 
clothes, which are to be applied in rapid succession. 

" Next, try and get rid of the water by slightly elevating the body, while the 
mouth is wedged open and the tongue depressed. To do this effectively, roll 
the person on the face, raising the body, lower extremities, and feet slightly; 
then wedge open the mouth with a bit of wood, a knot in a handkerchief, etc. 
Then place the left forefinger on the back of the tongue and depress it. The 
finger will not be bitten, because the mouth is so wedged open that the teeth 
cannot close. This opens the windpipe better than if the tongue is merely 
drawn out. Then, getting beside or astride of the person, press with the flat of 
the hand upon the bowels, pushing them upwards at the same time. Very 
extreme pressure may be borne in this way, and the writer can say from per- 
sonal experience that he has never seen any harm come from it. In half a 
minute, probably much less, the water will be driven out sufficiently to com- 
mence efforts at artificial respiration. Then turn the person over on the back, 
with the head still a little lower than the body, keeping, as before, the wedge 
in the mouth, the same finger on the tongue, and make upward pressure with 
the right hand upon the bowels. Press the right hand upwards and towards 
the spine until you hear the air passing out through the mouth. Commence 



EMERGENCIES. 329 

at first slowly, and, having driven out the air, remove the hand, that the air 
may again enter. Then make the upward pressure again, trying rather to 
exhaust the air thoroughly than to do it rapidly. At first, three or four mo- 
tions in a minute will be sufficient ; then gradually increase them from ten to 
fifteen a minute, and persevere at this rate until there are evidences of return- 
ing circulation, that is, pulse, or it is plain that life is extinct." 

"Dr. Howard's Direct Method " is as follows: (i Unless in danger of freez- 
ing, never move the patient from the spot where first rescued, nor allow by- 
standers to screen off the fresh air; but instantly wipe clean the mouth and 
nostrils, rip and remove all clothing to a little below the waist, rapidly rub 
dry the exposed part, and give two quick, smarting slaps on the stomach with 
the open hand. If this does not succeed, then turn him on his face, a large 
bundle of tightly-rolled clothing being placed beneath the stomach. Press 
heavily upon the spine, over the region of the stomach, for half a minute, then 
turn the patient quickly on his back, placing the roll of clothing under the 
back, so that the short ribs bulge prominently forward and are raised a little 
higher than the level of the mouth. Have the tip of the tongue held out of a 
corner of the mouth by a handkerchief in the hand of a bystander, and the 
arms stretched forcibly back above the head. Then kneel astride or beside 
the patient's hips, with your hands resting on the stomach; spread out the 
fingers so that you can grasp the waist about the short ribs. Throw all your 
weight steadily forward upon your hands, squeezing the ribs at the same time 
as if you wished to force everything in the chest upward out of the mouth. 
Continue this movement while you slowly count one, two, three, then sud- 
denly let go with a final push, which springs you back to your first kneeling 
position. Remain erect upon your knees while you count one, two, then 
throw your weight upward as before. Repeat these entire motions with regu- 
larity; at first, about four or five times a minute, gradually increasing the 
rate to about fifteen times a minute. Continue the treatment for at least two 
hours, if not successful before, meanwhile applying friction to the limbs; and 
even after he has begun to breathe assist him by well-timed pressure to deepen 
his first gasps into full deep breaths." 

Intoxication. — Symptoms: Breath has the odor of liquor, 1 
insensibiluTv more or less complete, usually can be roused, 
breathing quiet, pulse frequent, pupils slowly respond to light. 
Treatment: Emetics, 2 cold douches, slapping of the face or 
other sensitive parts of the body. 

1 R has often happened that a perfectly temperate person, feeling faint or 
exhausted, has taken some alcoholic stimulant, which, being perceptible in 
the breath, has, upon the supervention of a serious accident, led tbe bystanders 
to conclude that he was intoxicated. We should always be on our guard 
against such a mistake, for it not only causes an utter neglect of such meas- 
ures as are necessary to recovery, but leads to great injustice and mortification. 

2 For emetics, see p. 343. 



330 EMERGENCIES. 

Apoplexy. — Symptoms : Patient generally insensible, face 
flushed or very pale, pulse full, pupils do not respond to the 
light, breathing is more or less noisy, paralysis of face or one 
or more of the limbs, sometimes convulsions. Treatment: Rest 
in recumbent position, loosen the clothing about the head, neck, 
and chest. If head hot, apply cold. Keep patient quiet. Other 
means leave to the doctor. 

Convulsions or Fits. — Do not attempt to hold the patient 
still. Merely prevent him from injuring himself. If there is 
danger of the tongue being bitten, place a piece of wood (head 
of a clothes-pin, for example) between the teeth. In the or- 
dinary convulsions of children, from undigested food, etc., and 
in convulsions from blood poison, place the patient for a few 
moments in a warm bath. If the head is hot, keep cool water 
applied to it during and after the bath. In the convulsions of 
epilepsy, baths are not to be used ; quiet is the chief require- 
ment. 

Fainting Fits (syncope) . — Danger at times from feeble 
heart. Remove patient instantly from a crowd ; place in a 
recumbent posture. Life may be lost by keeping a fainting 
person in an erect posture. 

Sunstroke and Heat Exhaustion are two conditions entirely 
different, but caused by fatigue and prolonged exposure to 
great heat either b}^ day or night. They are most likely to 
occur in feeble and intemperate persons, among those who 
work under the direct rays of the sun, or in badly- ventilated 
and overheated kitchens, laundries, and workshops, or who 
wear in hot weather too much clothing, especially heavy head- 
coverings, and who drink to excess of iced drinks. 

In sunstroke, the skin is hot, pulse full, and breathing la- 
bored, and the patient may be unconscious. There is danger 
from the congestion which occurs in the internal organs. 
Treatment: Recumbent posture in a cool place, ice to the head, 
and cold douches upon the face, neck, chest, and spine, at- 



EMERGENCIES. 331 

tended with friction until consciousness returns. Stimulants 
are indicated if the pulse is very weak, and if reaction does not 
soon set in, mustard (but not to blister) may be applied to the 
feet and back of the neck and to the chest. When there is 
apparently no active congestion, but evidences of heat exhaus- 
tion, stimulants are to be used from the first, and cold applica- 
tions sparingly, if at all. It may be necessary to induce 
warmth. 

Burns and Scalds. — Burns are caused by the contact of the 
bod}' with fire, heated substances, or chemical agents. Scalds, 
by the contact with steam or boiling liquids. The danger in 
either case is from shock, and from inflammation of internal 
organs, and is increased generally in proportion to the nearness 
to the vital organs, the amount of surface injured, and the de- 
struction of the sub-lying tissues. Cases are on record of lock- 
jaw and other serious troubles following what are considered 
slight burns. If you see a person on fire, act promptly. Pick 
up the nearest rng, shawl, table-cover, overcoat, or slip of 
carpet, or, if necessaiy, tear down a curtain. Hold it before 
} T ourself to protect you as you proceed to wrap it around the 
burning part, keeping the flames as much as possible from the 
face of the sufferer, so as to prevent the entrance of overheated 
air into the lungs. If necessaiy (without parleying) , throw the 
burning person to the ground and roll him over and over in the 
blankets, carpets, or other woollen material, at the same time 
that an assistant drenches with water the cinders and half- 
burnt clothing. 1 

Treatment of Bums and Scalds: 1. Remove, by cutting with 
scissors, all the clothing you can about the injured parts, being- 
careful not to tear blisters open. Soften by water all adher- 
ent pieces of clothing. Cover the burned or scalded places 
with strips of soft linen or cotton cloth (not with cotton bat- 

1 Kindling fires with kerosene oil, filling lamps when they are lighted, let- 
ting lighted lamps fall, running or moving quickly while one's clothes are on 
fire, working ahout open fires in loose cotton dresses, are all sources of danger. 



332 EMERGENCIES. 

ting, for it adheres too closely, and is too heating) saturated 
in a mixture of carbolic acid or creosote with glycerine and 
olive oil, one teaspoonful of the first or the second ingredient 
mixed with the same amount of glycerine, and then well 
shaken together with one pint of oil, 1 or saturated in car- 
bolized vaseline, or in a mixture of equal parts of oil and 
lime-water, or a strong solution of bi-carbonate of soda. Or, 
the spots may be covered with chalk, soap, cream, or any sub- 
stance that will exclude the air. When blisters form, their con- 
tents may be removed by slight punctures of a sharp needle. 
2. In severe cases, there is more or less shock, and it may be 
necessary to suspend local measures, and revive the patient by 
stimulants, as before directed in cases of shock. 3. Do not re- 
move the dressings unless cleanliness demands it. When j t ou 
do, use great gentleness, that you may not injure newly-formed 
skin. Oily dressings should, from time to time, have fresh oil 
applied over them, and it is well to spray liquid dressings with 
a mixture of carbolic acid, one teaspoonful to eight ounces 
of water. 4. Troublesome, contracting scars sometimes follow 
burns, producing deformities. Especially is this the case at 
the bend of a joint, or where the skin is loose, as about the eyes, 
mouth, and neck. In short, there is great responsibility in- 
volved in the care of burns and scalds, and no person should 
attempt their continued treatment unless he is thoroughly versed 
in antiseptic surgery. 

Frost Bite. — This results from exposure to severe cold. 
The vitality of the part is reduced to a low point, and becomes 
bluish or white. Sometimes exposure to cold winds gradually 
produces a congestion of internal organs, and a tendency to 
sleep ; and, if the person indulges in it, in the open air espe- 
cially, death may result. 2 To bring about reaction, place the 

1 This mixture is much cleaner than many of the burn mixtures, and quiets 
pain. It should he kept on hand in houses and factories. In case olive oil 
cannot he obtained, other oils will answer. Strips of cloth are to be preferred 
to large pieces, as they can be more readily removed. 

2 If caught in a snow-storm, do not suffer yourself to be overcome with 
sleep until you have found a spot of some sort sheltered from the wind. 



EMERGENCIES. 333 

person in a room without Are, and gradually rub the chilled or 
frozen parts with ice, snow, or cold water. Stimulants ma}' be 
necessary. When the parts begin to redden and sting, or be- 
come painful, reaction has commenced and care is necessary (by 
rest, sleep, and gradually increasing warmth) lest the returning 
circulation in the skin become too active, so as to cause in- 
flammation . 

Fractures and Dislocations. — The signs of a fractured or 
broken bone are generally more or less change in the shape and 
natural appearance of the injured part, pain and inability to 
move the part readily, tenderness and unnatural mobility at 
the point of injury, and a grating sound when the fragments of 
bone are gently rubbed against each other. The symptoms of 
dislocation, or " bones out of joint," are in general the opposite 
to those of a fracture. There is ordinarily marked deformity 
and impaired motion. Treatment: There is generally but little 
urgenc} r in the treatment of a broken limb. The common im- 
pression that a broken bone must be immediately set is erro- 
neous, and tends to induce much handling of the injured parts, 
which is always dangerous, as jagged ends of bones may be 
made to injure the soft tissues. Put the patient in as comforta- 
ble position as possible, pending the arrival of the surgeon. 
Support the affected part by pillows, blankets, shawls, or coats, 
so as to prevent the painful twitchiugs of the injured muscles, 
and to preserve, as nearly as possible, the natural shape of the 
part. In case of fracture of the collar bone, place the forearm 
gentlj' in a sling, improvised from a long towel, or a shawl, or a 
piece of cloth, with a soft pad in the armpit of the affected 
side, and let the patient lie on his back, with a small pillow 
between the shoulders. In case of removal of the patient, 
steady the afflicted arm by a bandage over it and around the 
body. A broken arm is made most comfortable by placing it 
in a semi-flexed position upon a pillow ; a broken leg, by gently 
extending it to its full length and supporting it by pads on 
both sides. With a broken knee cap, the leg should be elevated 
on an inclined plane, with a fignre-of-8 bandage about the 



334 EMERGENCIES. 

knee. If one or more of the ribs are broken, apply a bandage 
firmly around the chest to prevent motion as far as possible. 
When a jaw bone is broken, hold the parts in proper place by a 
bandage about the head. When the patient is to be removed, 
more support to the fragments is necessary, by the binding on 
of " splints," that is, softly-padded shingles, pieces of leather, 
sticks, or anything that can serve to hold these fragments quiet 
and, nearly as possible, in line. 

The setting of a bone should be accomplished by a surgeon. 
When once the fragments are adjusted, they should not be dis- 
turbed. 1 

In a case of dislocation, it is incumbent upon the bystanders 
merely to make the sufferer comfortable, and to convey him 
carefully to a place where a surgeon can be obtained. The re- 
duction of a dislocation is oftentimes more difficult than the 
setting of a bone, and it should never be attempted by a layman 
if a surgeon can be obtained. 

Sprains are bruised or torn ligaments, cartilages, muscles, 
and nerves about the joints, and are serious injuries. After 
such an injury, though apparently slight, rest is necessary, and 
this may be temporarily obtained by firmly, but gently, wrap- 
ping the part in cloths or bandages dipped in hot or cold water, 
as the feelings of the person may indicate and the surroundings 
admit of. The surgeon may ultimately apply a proper splint. 2 

1 The process of repair in broken bones is similar to that witnessed in the 
healing of wounds of the soft parts. New, delicate material is abundantty 
deposited between and about the ends of the broken pieces. This gradually 
hardens to the consistency of bone, in the meantime decreasing in size, so 
that, if the fragments have been kept well in place, very little deformity 
results. The best surgeons are at times unable to prevent deformities, owing 
to their inability in certain instances to secure the proper apposition and reten- 
tion of the broken parts. An unprofessional person should not attempt to set 
a broken bone if a surgeon can possibly be procured. Movements of the body 
or limbs, though carefully made, may cause the sharp edges of bone to cut into 
important structures, blood-vessels, nerves, etc. Fatal injuries may, in this 
way, result. 

2 So serious oftentimes is the injury to the ligaments, muscles, and other 
tissues about a joint, that sprains have been spoken of as " broken joints." 



EMERGENCIES. 335 

Contusions or Bruises result from falls, blows, or pressure, 
and, if severe, are attended lry shock, broken blood-vessels, 
and crushed muscles and other tissues. The black and blue 
spots, which result from the oozing of blood from the blood- 
vessels, and which disappear after a few hours or days, are 
generally the largest where the tissues are the loosest, such as 
the connective tissue under the skin of the scalp and e}'elids. 
The treatment of contusions is rest, relief from shock, the ele- 
vation of the bruised part, so as to retard the flow of blood into 
it, and the application of cold by water or powdered ice in 
towels or rubber bags. 1 The wet towels must not be kept on 
long enough to act by their warmth as poultices, or to soak the 
individual's clothing. 

Wounds are generally classified as follows : — 

Incised Wounds, i.e., cuts or incisions of various depths, 
made generally by sharp instruments, such as knives. 

Punctured Wounds, such as stabs, and pricks made by 
splinters, thorns, needles, etc. 

Poisoned Wounds, from the bites of snakes, spiders, rabid 
dogs, etc. If the wounded part is very much bruised, the 
wound is called a contused wound. If the skin and tissues 
beneath are much torn, it is a lacerated wound. 

All wounds are attended b}' more or less hemorrhage, by 
pain, and by the presence of dead or foreign matter, viz., fibres 
of cloth, dirt, and coagulated blood. 

Treatment : Ascertain the source and amount of the bleeding, 
and do not be alarmed b}- the amount of the clothing stained, for 
a small amount of blood will oftentimes make a large stain, and 
3'et the source of the bleeding may frequently be controlled 
with ease. 2 When the wound is located, the kind of hemor- 

1 Sixty drops of tincture of arnica, or extract of witch-hazel, may be added 
to half a pint of water. Water dressings, if continued too long, lower the 
vitality of the part. 

2 A surgeon relates the following: "Was called one night to see a woman 
reported to be bleeding to death. Found her in a close room, sitting in a chair, 
with blood-stained carpet about her, and, wrapped around one of her legs, a 
sheet soaked in blood. Tearing this off, I found a little stream of blood trickling 



336 EMERGENCIES. 

rhage will be apparent. If a large artery has been cut across, 
the blood spirts. The wound being found, if the blood has 
ceased to flow, from the spontaneous coagulation of blood, it 
may be wise not to disturb the condition of things, if there has 
been much shock, until removal to a better location ; but re- 
member that in the removal, if the person is jarred much, bleed- 
ing may recur, and will need to be checked. To stop external 
bleeding, pressure is of the first importance, then applications of 
ice, cold water, tannin, or alum. If the bleeding is compara- 
tively slight, or occurs in places where the bones beneath are 
near the surface, as in the scalp and face, pressure may be ap- 
plied to the wound by the fingers, or by a pad held firmly in 
place by a bandage. If severe, and especially if arterial in 
character, i.e., coming in jets of a bright red color, pressure 
must be made between the wound and heart, a pad being bound 
over the main artery ; or, in the case of a limb, it should be 
elevated, "and the artery should be pressed upon by a knot in a 
handkerchief, towel, suspender, or piece of cloth, tied about 
the limb, the knot over the blood-vessel, and then twisted by 
means of a stick until the bleeding ceases. 1 "When this is con- 
trolled, the wound should be quickly washed with cold water, 
and the foreign matter carefully removed, and any organs which 
have protruded replaced. Then dry it gently, and, if the wound 
is an incised one, bring its edges together by strips of surgeons' 
adhesive plaster, parallel to each other, and from one-half to 
one-fourth of an inch apart, by rubber plaster, or by the thin 
isinglass plaster, if it can be kept dry. Never cover the entire 
wound with plaster, as some exit must be allowed for any ooz- 
ing that may occur. 

from a small opening in a broken vein between the knee and the ankle. Pres- 
sure with the finger readily controlled the bleeding for the time, and a properly- 
applied bandage accomplished the end afterwards. Much anxiety, loss of 
blood, and injury to carpet, might have been saved by a little coolness and 
knowledge." 

1 The main artery of the arm runs along the inner edge of tbe prominent 
muscle, which stands out when the arm is strongly bent; of the thigh, along 
its inner middle line. These arteries, and other principal ones, are outlined 
in Fig. 47. 



EMEKGENCIES. 337 

The tourniquet may now be removed, if the proceeding be 
not attended with renewed bleeding, and a graduated pad and 
bandage applied, to assist in keeping the strips in position and 
to prevent secondary bleeding. 

If the wound is jagged and torn, the edges cannot be brought 
together. Replace the parts as near as possible in their normal 
position, and, if there is a tendency to bleeding, apply cloths 
wet with cold water. If there is no such tendency, hot appli- 
cations (poultices and water dressings) ma} T be applied at the 
outset. 

Punctured Wounds, on account of the bruising which gener- 
ally accompanies them, the injury to the deeper tissues, and 
sometimes the character of the sources of injury, — rusty nails, 
pieces of shell, needles, splinters of wood, etc., — are generally 
considered the most dangerous, and if in the sole of the foot, or 
palm of the hand, ma}' give rise to lockjaw, and are frequently 
followed by erysipelas and other forms of inflammation ; whereas, 
the principal danger from an incised wound is hemorrhage. 

Treatment : If the sources of the injury are still in the wound, 
remove them. Thorns, needles, splinters, etc., should not be 
left in the boclv under the idea that the} 7 " will work their way 
out." Poking at them, however, as in the case of splinters, 
adds to the irritation already set up. If a splinter is under the 
finger or toe nail, and cannot be pulled out, scrape the nail thin 
over the splinter until it can be easily cut and the splinter 
seized, or make an incision on each side of the foreign body 
and remove the tongue of nail between. The skin and tissues 
of the palm and the sole are so firm and dense that imprisoned 
matters cannot easily find exit, and lockjaw is liable to result. 
It is important, therefore, that an incision should be made over 
the foreign substances, so as to reach it easily and allow a free 
exit for blood, etc. The removal of needles had better not be 
attempted by others than surgeons, unless they are near the 
surface, as they readil} T slip, on being touched, between the 
fibres of muscles and connective tissues. If there is a tendency 
to such slipping, or the needle seems deeply buried, hold the 
part still till the surgeon comes. 



338 EMERGENCIES. 

When a fish-hook enters a part, and does not go through, 
push the point through if possible, and then cut the barb off 
and withdraw the remnant. If it cannot be pushed through, it 
is best to cut down upon it and so remove it. In these wounds, 
carbolized water dressings, one drachm (i.e., about a teaspoon- 
f ul) to ten ounces of water, are best. Pain may be relieved by 
the addition of laudanum, one-half ounce (i.e., about one table- 
spoonful) to pint of water. 

Poisoned Wounds, which remain for consideration, will be 
treated of under the head of poisons. 

Spec/ a/ Hemorrhages. — Of these, the most common and 
the least dangerous is bleeding from the nose. It results from 
falls, blows, or disease, or it is an effort of nature to relieve 
some internal congestion, and is often preceded by a feeling of 
weight, pain, and fulness about the forehead. Treatment: As- 
certain if the blood escapes from one or both nostrils, then 
raise the arm of the affected side above the head, compress the 
nostrils, and apply cold to the forehead or back of the neck. 
Frequently it is sufficient if one remains quietly in a sitting 
posture. If the bleeding continues, and the person is faint, 
inject into the affected nostril a syringeful of ice-water or solu- 
tion of common salt (i.e., one teaspoonful to large wineglass 
of water), or a dilute solution of alum, or blow in some tannin. 
The nostrils may be plugged by cotton dipped in one of the 
above solutions. If blood still forces itself into the throat, and 
so out of the mouth, a surgeon must be seen. In all forms of 
hemorrhage, the patient must be kept in a cool room and quiet, 
and when faint from severe bleeding, in a recumbent posture, 
with the head lower than the body. Bleeding from the mouth 
is generally relieved by pressure and by one of the above styp- 
tics. Bleeding from the stomach is generally attended by 
dark blood mingled with food. From the lungs, the blood 
is bright red and frothy, mixed with bubbles of air, and is 
generally accompanied with a cough. For relief, quiet and re- 
cumbent posture, ice and styptics internally in small quantities, 
so as not to induce vomiting ; cold ma}^ be applied over the 



EMERGENCIES. 339 

region of the stomach. Bleeding from the gum, after the ex- 
traction of a tooth, is sometimes alarming, but continued pres- 
sure in the socket with the tip of the finger, or a piece of 
sponge, or a plug of wood supported by the jaws, which are 
held together 03- a tight bandage about the head, is ordinarily 
sufficient. When pressure, cold, aud ordinary styptics, will 
not control hemorrhage, touching the bleeding spot with a red- 
hot knitting-needle is of service. 

Foreign Bodies. — Pieces of chicken-bone or fish-bone, meat, 
or other food, pins, false teeth, etc., sometimes lodge in the 
larynx, causing great difficulty in swallowing and breathing, 
and give rise to the feeling and danger of suffocation. Treat- 
ment: A sharp blow upon the back, if given immediately after 
the accident has occurred, will sometimes assist the patient to 
eject the foreign body. If it fails, invert the patient, and 
move him from side to side, while some one strikes the person 
between the shoulders with the open hand. If this fails, and 
the foreign body cannot be dislodged by the finger introduced 
into the mouth, or by long, curved forceps, the surgeon is 
needed. 

Little children in play sometimes put peas, beans, shoe- 
buttons, pins, etc., into the nose or ears. Insects also enter 
these places. Foreign bodies in the ear, if not removed, may 
create inflammation, which may extend through the drum mem- 
brane to the brain. Small bodies may be removed by syring- 
ing with tepid water, the nozzle of the syringe being placed 
against the upper wall of the ear canal. Larger bodies ma}' be 
gently scooped out by a bent probe, or the rounded end of a 
hair-pin, care being taken not to injure the drum membrane. 
Insects may be washed out after being smothered with salt 
water, oil, or by the vapor of vinegar from a saturated piece of 
cotton wool placed in the external opening. If the foreign 
body is up the nostril, close the unaffected nostril, take a full 
breath through the mouth, and then breathe out suddenly and 
forcibly through the affected nostril. Sometimes snuff will 



340 EMERGENCIES. 

cause enough sneezing to dislodge it. If the breathing in is 
too forcible, the bod}' ma}' be carried high up. 

Foreign bodies in the e3'e, such as sand, broken eyelashes, 
cinders, and pieces of metal, if not removed promptly, cause 
serious inflammation. Never rub the eye to dislodge particles. 
If on the front of the eyeball, gently remove with a piece of 
wet cotton wrapped around a ver} T small, smooth piece of wood, 
or with a moist camePs-hair brush ; or, if it is a metallic sub- 
stance, use a magnet. Sometimes it is difficult to see a minute 
particle unless a bright light falls directly upon the ej-e. The 
best position for the operator is to stand behind the chair of 
the patient, or a little to one side, steady the affected eye, and 
keep the lids open with the fingers of the left hand. A mag- 
nifying glass is of service in detecting whether a supposed par- 
ticle is one in reality or merely a stain from a piece of metal or 
a natural discoloration. Eyestones are sometimes used to dis- 
lodge particles from under the e}'elids, but it is much better for 
the patient to take hold of the lashes of the upper lid, raise it 
from the eyeball, and then move it forcibly over the lower lid 
towards the inner corner of the eye ; or, the assistant, sitting 
in front of the patient, turns the upper lid gently backwards, 
and over a lead-pencil, penholder, or firm tooth-pick. The 
lower lid can, in general, be readily everted. The inflamed con- 
dition of the eye, left after a foreign body has been in or upon 
it, is generally relieved by a drop of olive oil or castor oil upon 
the e}-e, or b} T a gentle sopping with warm water, or with borax 
and camphor water (ten grains to the ounce), putting a tea- 
spoonful of this mixture in a tablespoonful of warm water. 
Poultices or patented eye-washes should not be used. In case 
lime has got into the eye, bathe the eye with a weak solution of 
vinegar and water. 

POISONS. 

A poison may be defined to be "any substance which, 
when introduced into the system, or applied externally injures 
health, or destroys life irrespective of mechanical means, or 



EMERGENCIES. 341 

direct thermal changes." 1 Its action is: 1. Local, producing 
pain and soreness in the mouth, stomach, lungs, or bowels, 
associated it may be with vomiting, and difficult breathing and 
swallowing, due to injury to the throat and windpipe ; or the 
poison may eat or destroy the tissues with which it comes in 
contact, but does not as a rule suspend consciousness. 2. The 
poison may act remotely, i.e., through the blood and nervous 
system, and produce delirium, excitement, convulsions, stupor, 
or marked prostration. 3. It ma} T act both locally and remotely. 
Those poisons whose action is chiefly local are the irritant, and 
the acrid, escharotic, or corrosive poisons. The first group in- 
cludes some of the metallic poisons, such as copper and mer- 
cury, and some irritating gases, and also certain vegetable, 
animal, and mineral substances, such as tansy, poke-berries, 
cantharides, deca3 r ed meat, and poisonous fish. The second 
group comprises the strong acids, such as sulphuric, nitric, mu- 
riatic, and oxalic ; alkalies, such as potash and ammonia, acid 
and alkaline salts, corrosive sublimate, etc. 

Those poisons which act ' ' remotely ' ' are termed narcotic or 
neurotic poisons, and include such substances as opium, chloral 
hydrate, alcohol, belladonna, aconite, etc. Those poisons 
which produce both local and remote effects are the acro-narcotic 
poisons, pink-root, ergot, lobelia, etc., and the septic poisons 
in venomous bites and stings and virulent wounds. Usually 
we suspect poisoning if a person is taken suddenly and violently 
ill, especially if there is great pain and repeated or severe 
retching or vomiting, and it is known that food or drink has 

1 The above definition, from Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, seems to be 
the best. There is no legal definition of a poison. A popular idea is that a 
poison is a substance which, taken in small amount, will destroy life. The 
fact is, there are varying degrees of susceptibility to the action of a poisonous 
substance, and by the habitual use of a substance large doses may often be taken 
with impunity. There are some persons, on the contrary, who are so suscep- 
tible that they cannot take, for example, even the most minute dose of calomel 
without a resulting sore mouth, or of belladonna, without its producing a dry 
throat and dilated pupils. Of the lower animals, hogs, it is said, can eat hen- 
bane with impunity; pheasants, stramonium; goats, tobacco and water hem- 
lock. 



342 EMERGENCIES. 

been recently taken. 1 It sometimes happens that severe colic 
from undigested food, an attack of cholera morbus, the pain 
and distress referable to heart disease, the stupor due to an 
apoplexy, are mistaken by the ignorant for the symptoms of 
poisoning, and the patient is roughly and wrongly dealt with. 
To ascertain, carefully examine the mouth, lips, and breath ; 
search the clothing and the room in which the poison is sup- 
posed to be. 2 A person who has taken poison with intent to 
kill is likely to prevaricate and destroy the evidence of the 
poison used. 

Spasms, with more or less unconsciousness, will lead you to 
suspect strychnine ; quiet, deep sleep, from which a person is 
not readily aroused, and strongly contracted pupils, indicate 
opium ; stupor, with salivation, — mercury ; inflammation of the 
mouth, severe pain, retching, and vomiting, — arsenic or other 
corrosive poison ; delirium,— belladonna, stramonium, or hyos- 
cyamus ; unusual excitement, with occasional stupor, — alcohol 
and Indian hemp ; loss of muscular power, feeble pulse, great 
prostration, paleness and coldness of the skin, — tobacco, aco- 

1 Poison may slowly do its work if taken in small amount and repeatedly, 
and the person be considered sick with a chronic disease. Such poisons are 
called cumulative. Lead and arsenic are examples. 

2 Stimulants and medicines containing poisonous ingredients, as chloroform, 
opium, belladonna, fusel oil, etc., should not be left within the reach of little 
children or others likely to use them recklessly or without cause. Such things 
should be in bottles of a peculiar shape, and with peculiar colored labels. 

" At a recent convention of pharmacists in England, the importance of fix- 
ing some legal limits to the wholesale poisoning of the public by patent medi- 
cines was urged. It was proposed that even if it were impossible altogether 
to suppress the imposition of dishonest quackery upon vulgar superstition, 
the venders of nostrums should at least be compelled to divulge the compo- 
sition of their wares, and prevented from publishing mischievous and men- 
dacious advertisements concerning them. Among the examples cited were 
included sundry 'hair restorers,' which, in direct contradiction to their adver- 
tised pretensions, contained poisonous quantities of lead. But the most glar- 
ing imposition was a largely certificated ' Sure Cure for the Opium Habit,' 
which was found on analysis to give two grains of morphine to the dose, and 
was recommended to be taken thrice a day. ... It would be well if the Ameri- 
can public were taught that ninety-nine hundredths of the proprietary medi- 
cines which flood the market are the products of uneducated imposters, and 
are either wholly inert or positively deleterious." — Dr. A. N. Bell. 



EMERGENCIES. 343 

nite, or digitalis ; bloated and livid face, limbs contracted, head 
thrown back, — the suffocative gases. 1 

Treatment: Whatever the poison may be, the indications for 
treatment are : 1 . To get the poison out of the body by encour- 
aging vomiting. 2. To neutralize, or render inert, by means of 
antidotes, what cannot be removed. These act mechanically, 
chenricalty, and by reason of their physiological properties. 
3. To combat any dangerous symptoms that have arisen, and 
to obviate their effects by means of stimulants, artificial respi- 
ration, and exciting the action of the skin, kidneys, and bowels. 
To remove the poison as quickly as possible from the body, re- 
sort is had to emetics, to produce vomiting. Give at least every 
fifteen minutes, until the effect is produced, copious draughts of 
warm (tepid) water or other drinks, or one pint of warm water 
with half an ounce of mustard, 2 well stirred in together, with 
half an ounce of common salt, or two teaspoonfuls of powdered 
alum with an ounce of syrup, or one or two tablespoon fuls of 
wine of ipecac. Tickling the throat with a feather assists the 
act of vomiting. If the person will not swallow readily, close 
the nostrils with the thumb and finger while the emetic is given. 
Insert, if necessary, the thumbs behind the teeth and between 
the jaws, and so pry open the mouth and depress the tongue 
with the handle of a strong spoon, a clothespin, or stick. By 
pressing on the jaws at their joints, the mouth will be forced 
open. 

Second, To neutralize or render inert what cannot be removed. 
Examples of chemical neutralizing substances are weak acids 
(lemon juice or diluted vinegar) , to be used when the poisons 
are such alkalies as lime potash, etc. ; or, on the other hand, 
alkalies such as lime-water, weak soda-water, and soap-suds to 
neutralize acid poisoning. Common salt with milk and the 

1 Alcoholic stimulants may hide the common symptoms of poisoning. The 
profound sleep of some intoxicated persons resembles closely the sleep pro- 
duced by opium. 

2 The mustard should be thoroughly mixed with the water lest some of it 
may cling to the lining of the stomach and excite inflammation. The stomach 
pump should be used by physicians only. 



344 EMERGENCIES. 

white of the egg should be opposed to nitrate of silver, verdi- 
gris, and corrosive sublimate. The fresh hydrated sesqui-oxide 
of iron, formed b} T precipitating tincture of chloride of iron with 
an excess of ammonia, is an antidote for arsenic and metallic 
poisons generally. Belladonna is an example of a physiological 
antidote. It dilates the pupil of the eye, in opposition to 
opium, which contracts it. Coffee is a valuable physiological 
antidote to opium, its tendency being to excite and to overcome 
stupefaction. Mechanical antidotes, i.e., such as allay irrita- 
tion, are olive oil, milk, flour and water (in a thin paste), chalk 
mixtures, castor oil, mucilage, flaxseed tea, the white of egg 
and water, etc. ; and, in case of strychnine poisoning, charcoal 
mingled with water. They serve to coat over the irritated 
mucous membrane, and thus protect it. 



INDIVIDUAL POISONS. 

IRRITANT AND CORROSIVE POISONS. 

If the poison taken is known to be a corrosive one, emetics 
should be omitted, and recourse had immediately to antidotes. 

1. Acids. — Sulphuric (oil of vitriol), nitric. (aqua fortis), 
chlorohydric or muriatic, oxalic, carbolic, 1 acetic, etc. The 
first three of the above are much used in certain factories, 
photographing establishments, etc., and are sometimes left care- 
lessly about. Oxalic acid resembles in appearance epsom 
salts, and is sometimes taken b}^ mistake for the latter. It is 
frequently used to polish kitchen boilers. 

Antidotes. Baking soda, chalk, magnesia, wall plaster or 
saleratus mixed with water, lime-water, soap-suds, oil in large 
amount, followed by mucilaginous drinks, stimulants. When 
sulphuric acid has been taken, it should be quickly diluted by a 
free use of ice water. 

1 Carbolic acid, so called, is not properly an acid. 






EMERGENCIES. 345 

2. Alkalies and their Salts. — Ammonia (hartshorn, liquor 
or water of ammonia, muriate of ammonia or sal ammoniac) , 
potassa (caustic potash in sticks and ciystals, mistaken by a 
child for candy; ley; liquor potassae, a clear, liquid medicine ; 
pearlash or carbonate of potash ; nitrate of potash, or salt- 
petre, used in corning beef, etc., has been mistaken for purga- 
tive salts ; chlorate of potash, a common remedy for sore 
throat, has been used unwittingly in large and poisonous doses ; 
binoxalate of potash, has been taken by mistake for cream of 
tartar), soda. 

Antidotes: Vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice, 
citric and tartaric acid in solution ; fixed oils, viz., castor, lin- 
seed, olive, cod-liver, machine, form soaps and so prevent 
caustic effects ; mucilaginous drinks, especially when saltpetre 
has been taken. 

3. Metallic Substances. — Antimony: in the medicines, tar- 
tar emetic and wine of antimony, an ingredient of pewter, of 
Britannia, and type metal ; oxide of antimony. 

Antidotes: Assist the distressing vomiting by draughts of 
tepid water, flaxseed tea, sugar water ; give teaspoonful of 
tannin ; a cup of strong, green tea. 

Arsenic : an ingredient of paris green, used as a paint, and 
to destroy insects among plants ; of orpiment, a 3-ellow paint ; 
of realgar, a red paint ; of arsenite of copper, or scheeles, 
green ; in some brightly colored artificial flowers, wall papers, 
candy boxes, and kindergarten papers ; in fly powders, rat 
pastes ; used in the stuffing of birds, by enamellers, and in 
fowlers' solution ; a medicine. Arsenic, as ordinarily obtained 
in the shops, is a fine, white powder, and may be mistaken for 
sugar or some equally harmless substance. 

Antidotes : Freshly prepared peroxide of iron (to be obtained 
at a drug store) in large quantity, or mix three or four table- 
spoonfuls of aqua ammonia with one or two tablespoonfuls of 
muriated tincture of iron, strain through a cloth, and use the 
brownish precipitate left on the cloth after washing with water. 
Give one teaspoonful every few minutes. Dialysed iron, char- 



346 EMERGENCIES. 

coal, and calcined magnesia are other antidotes. Encourage 
vomiting* Allay irritation. 

Copper : in some cooking utensils ; in the alloys, bronze, 
brass, bell metal, german silver, etc. ; in sulphate of copper or 
blue vitriol, acetate of copper or verdigris. Poisoning has 
occurred from pickles made green by copper ; by the use of 
colored confectionery ; from the wrappers of farinaceous foods ; 
inferior gold filling for the teeth, and copper dust in some of 
the trades. 

Antidotes : Milk ; white of eggs ; enough baking soda to 
cover an ordinary nickel cent, every five minutes for half an 
hour. Allay irritation. 

Lead : In the acetate or sugar of lead often used as an appli- 
cation to sores, or as an eye wash ; l in "white lead" and "red 
oxide " of the painters ; in some hair dyes ; water kept in leaden 
vessels or pipes ; wines sweetened b}< lead ; tin foil covering of 
tobacco and farinaceous foods ; pickle jars with metal tops, and 
in newly painted rooms. Poisoning by it has occurred among 
the makers and users of glazed cards, japan ware, cosmetics, 
lead type, and tin spoons. 

Antidotes: Strong solution of Epsom or Glaubers salts, for 
the soluble preparations of lead; dilute sulphuric acid for the 
insoluble. 

Mercury : Bi-chloride or corrosive sublimate, used in solution 
as a medicine, as an ingredient of freckle and other lotions, and 
for the destruction of vermin ; an ingredient of the red oxide 
or red precipitate, white precipitate, etc., upon looking-glasses. 
Used in the preservation of stuffed birds and animals, etc. ; is 
corrosive. 

Antidotes : White of eggs ; flour beaten up with milk and 
water. 

Silver : Lunar caustic or nitrate of silver, an ingredient of 
hair dyes ; used in solution as a lotion ; some forms used in 
photography and the trades. 

1 Eye-washes containing lead are apt to cause opacity of the eye. 



EMERGENCIES. 347 

Antidotes : One to two teaspoonfuls of salt in a tumbler of 
water decomposes the poison and arrests its activity. Allay 
irritation. 

Zinc : Sulphate of zinc or white vitriol, used in lotions ; 
chloride of zinc in disinfectants. 

Antidotes : Carbonate of soda in water ; milk and white of 
eggs. Vomiting relieved b} T copious draughts of warm water. 

Tin : In some dyeing substances ; in poor cans for the pres- 
ervation of food. 

Antidotes. See Copper. 

Iodine : Ordinary tincture of iodine, as in some liniments. 

Antidote : Starch and water. 

Iron : Copperas, green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, used in 
lotions and as disinfectant. 

Antidotes : Baking soda and mucilaginous drinks. 

Phosphorus : An ingredient of many rat poisons. Children 
have been poisoned by eating these, and b}~ sucking matches. 
The vapor in match factories is a source of poison. 

Antidotes : Large quantities of magnesia or chalk in water ; 
milk of magnesia ; white of eggs. Avoid fatty substances. 

4. Gases. — Chlorine : A suffocative gas used in trades and 
chemical experiments. Carbonic Oxide (generally odor of 
stove gas) : From incomplete combustion in stoves and fur- 
naces. Carbonic Acid (choke damp) : In deep wells, cisterns, 
and vats in closed cellars ; in mines, sewers, etc. Sulphuretted 
Hydrogen (odor of decaying eggs) : Subtle poison, found wher- 
ever there is putrefaction ; in cesspools, sewers, outhouses, etc. 
Illuminating Gas, etc. 

Antidotes: Fresh, pure air; dashes of cold water upon the 
face ; inhalation of vapor of ammonia ; artificial respiration. 

5. Animal and Vegetable. — Poisonous Fish: conger eel, 
bladder fish, gray snapper, etc., with some ; some shell-fish. 

Antidotes : Emetics ; emollients ; strong purgative ; stimu- 
lants. 



348 EMERGENCIES. 

Oil of Savin : Volatile oil from the red cedar, sometimes 
improperly used medicinally, is a marked irritant. 

Antidotes : Ice ; coffee ; ten drops of paregoric every fifteen 
minutes till relief. Allay irritation. 

Croton Oil : A violent purgative, also used in liniments ; 
may be mistaken for a harmless oil. Poke Berries : sometimes 
eaten by children. Oil of Tansy ; Beans of the Castor-Oil 
Plant, sometimes eaten by children. Common Wild Parsnip ; 
Oleander ; Marsh Marigold. Cantharides or Spanish Fly ; 
Colchicum, used frequently in rheumatie medicines, etc. 

Antidotes: After vomiting, strong coffee or vinegar and 
water; mucilaginous drinks ; stimulants. 

ACRO-NARCOTIC. 

Lobelia or Indian Tobacco, used medicinally ; Meadow 
Saffron ; Spigelia or Pink Eoot, sometimes recklessly used 
as a vermifuge. Spurred Rye, or Ergot, in medicines, some- 
times ground with the rye. Sanguinaria, or Blood-Root, in 
medicines. Nicotine of Tobacco, especially in pipes and cigar- 
holders long used ; in cigarettes and chewing tobacco. Mush- 
rooms (some varieties) : The edible has purple spores ; gills 
are at first delicate pink, afterwards purple and tawny black ; 
stem white, full, firm, varying in shape, with a white, persistent 
ring. 1 It must be sought for in the open fields. The best kinds 
have an agreeable odor, and do not change color when plucked 
and exposed to the air. Poisonous mushrooms, according to 
Chrystisin, are recognized by their dark color ; acrid, bitter 
taste ; pungent odor ; and by the fact that they generally grow 
in dark, damp places. 2 Aconite (Monkshood, Wolfsbane) : 

1 Fungi and their Uses. Cooke. 

2 " On the subject of distinguishing poisonous species, Mr. Cooke says that 
there is no golden rule which will enable us to tell at a glance the good species 
from the bad. The only safe guide lies in mastering, one by one, the specific 
distinctions, and increasing the knowledge through experience, as a child learns 
to distinguish a filbert from an acorn, or a leaf of sorrel from one of white 
clover. The characters of half a dozen good, esculent species, he says, may be 
learned as easily as the ploughboy learns to discriminate as many species of 



EMERGENCIES. 349 

Preparations of leaves and roots used medicinally, internally, 
and in liniments. Preparations of the root are several times 
stronger than those of the leaves. The plant has been mistaken 
for the horse radish. This poison produces peculiar numbness, 
or tingling sensations in the mouth, throat, and skin. Meze- 
keon : A garden shrub having bright red berries, sometimes 
eaten by mistake for currants. 

Antidotes: Fresh air, stimulants, electricity, cold douches, 
artificial respiration Allay irritation. 

THE SEPTIC POISONS. 

Venomous Bites and Stings. — In case of snake bite, or 
that of a rabid animal, or one supposed to be mad, tie a string 
or handkerchief tightly about the limb just above the bite ; then 
suck the wound, or encourage the blood to flow by means of a 
cupping-glass. Wash out the wound and rub thoroughly into 
it a piece of nitrate of silver, or paint it with tincture of iodine, 
or press into it, for a moment, the end of a red-hot knitting- 
needle or steel for sharpening knives. Sometimes the bite of a 
human being is very dangerous. 

Treatment : In case of snake bites especially, administer alco- 
holic stimulants freely. To the wounds made by bites and 
stings, apply mild, unstimulating applications, viz., oil, vaseline, 
cold cream, suet, etc. Support the patient's strength. Stings 
of bees, wasps, scorpions, etc., extract the " stinger" by fingers, 
small forceps, or pressing about it with the barrel end of a 
watch key ; then apply spirits of ammonia, saleratus water, or 
mud. 

Virulent Wounds, Infectious Diseases. • — The contact of the 
skin, denuded of its outer covering, with decomposing sub- 
birds. He tells us, moreover, that it is not enough to avoid poisonous species, 
hut that discretion should be used in preparing and eating good ones. They 
change so rapidly, that even the cultivated mushroom, if long kept, is unfit 
for use. Nor is it enough that they be of good species and fresh ; but plenty 
of salt must be used in their preparation, to neutralize any deleterious prop- 
erty, and pepper and vinegar are also recommended as advantageous."— Popu- 
lar Science Monthly. 



350 EMERGENCIES. 

stances, irritating plants, such as the poison ivy, poisonous 
cards, utensils, etc., and of the mucous membrane with matter 
secreted from diseased surfaces, has produced diseases from 
which persons have died. 

Treatment : Stimulants internally, and mild applications ex- 
ternally, till the doctor comes. 



NARCOTIC POISONS. 

Opium (active principles, morphia, codeia, etc.) in laudanum, 
paregoric, Godfrey's cordials, Dover's powder, many liniments, 
soothing syrups, cholera mixtures, Dalby's carminative, etc., 
is a particularly active poison in the very young and the 
old. 

Antidotes: Strong coffee, aromatic spirits of ammonia (five 
drops every fifteen minutes till recovered), electricity, cold 
douches, slapping of the surface by hands or wet towels. Keep 
the patient moving if inclined to sleep, and, if possible, in the 
open air. 

Belladonna (deadly nightshade) in ointments, liniments, and 
lotions. Its active principle, atropia, is used in solution by 
oculists as an application to the eye. The leaves and berries 
of the plant are sometimes eaten by children by mistake. 

Antidotes : Cold douches ; brandy ; paregoric, fifteen drops, or 
laudanum, five drops, loith care, every quarter of an hour, with 
large doses of lime-water ; electricity. 

Hemlock. — Five varieties are said to be poisonous, and all 
parts of the plant. The roots of the water hemlock are some- 
times mistaken for parsnips. One variety (fools' parsley) is 
sometimes mistaken for ordinary parsley. The hemlock is 
common, and grows in hedges and wild places. 

Antidotes: Aromatic spirits of ammonia. If much pain and 
vomiting, ten grains of bromide of potassium every half-hour, 
or hour, as the case demands. 



EMERGENCIES. 351 

Stramonium (thorn apple, " Jimsou " or " Jamestown weed"). 
— Found along roadside, and near fences in out-of-the-way 
places. Seeds sometimes eaten b} r children. 

Antidotes : See Belladonna. 

Strychnine, as sold in the shops, is a white powder ; bought 
frequently to poison animals ; ma} T be taken by persons b}~ mis- 
take ; is also an ingredient of tincture of nux vomica, a medi- 
cine. 

Antidotes: Chloroform, or ether, inhaled to relieve spasm; 
cold douches ; aromatic ammonia ; rectal injection of an infu- 
sion of tobacco ; artificial respiration. 

Prussic Acid. — Hydrocyanic acid, used in a dilute form, 
medicinally ; cyanide of potassium, used to kill moths, butter- 
flies, etc., in laurel water; the meat of peach, cherry, plum, 
and almond pits, if freely eaten. 

Antidotes: See Gases. 

Chloroform and Chloral, both, too often used indiscriminately 
and recklessly by people at large. 

Antidotes: Slapping of body, cold douches, electricity, artifi- 
cial respiration. 

Digitalis (foxglove) , a garden plant. Its extract used me- 
dicinally. 

Hyoscyamus ( henbane ) . — Used medicinally. 
Antidotes : Same as for Belladonna. 

Alcohol. — Used repeatedly, even in so-called moderate 
amount, is a slow poison. In the young and feeble, it has 
caused acute poisoning, and even death. 

Antidotes: In acute poisoning, emetics, cold douches, coffee, 
aromatic ammonia, and slapping the soles of the feet. 



APPENDIX NOTES. 



APPENDIX NOTES. 



Arranged according to the pages and paragraphs to which they belong. 
In the text, reference to these notes is made by letters. 



Page 22, § 33 (a.). The Human Hand.— "We ought to define the hand 
as belonging exclusively to man, corresponding in sensibility and motion 
with that ingenuity which converts the being who is the weakest in natural 
defence to the ruler over animate and inanimate nature. . . . The armed 
extremities of a variety of animals give them great advantages ; but if man 
possessed any similar provisions, he would forfeit his sovereignty over all 
As Galen long since observed . ' Did man possess the natural armor of the 
brutes, he would no longer work as an artificer, nor protect himself with a 
breastplate, nor fashion a sword or spear, nor invent a bridle to mount the 
horse and hunt the lion ; neither could he follow the arts of peace, con- 
struct the pipe and lyre, erect houses, place altars, inscribe laws, and, 
through letters, hold communication with the wisdom of antiquity.' But 
the hand is not a distinct instrument ; nor is it properly a superadded part. 
The whole frame must conform to the hand, and act with reference to it." 
— The Hand. Bell. 

P. 28, § 40 (a.). Importance of Conjoint Action of Muscles. — "The 
state of equilibration between the muscles performing opposite kinds of 
movements . . . may be readily illustrated by the part played by the 
muscles placed before and behind the spine, in maintaining the erect 
posture of the body. The position is kept up without effort, without 
even consciousness, by the healthy man whose muscles are well balanced 
and in good ' tone.' It may be, however, that the same man, after a long 
day's work over a desk in an ill-ventilated city office, no longer presents 
that supreme unconsciousness of his muscles and their action, and the 
stoop of his shoulders and bent head demonstrate to others that the 
balance is no longer kept, that the tonicity of the morning has passed 
off, and the wearied muscles are no longer on the watch. And so it 
is when, in sleep, the muscles are relaxed and gravity asserts its force, 
so that the head falls forward by its own weight, no longer restrained by 
the passive counteraction of its 'extensor' muscles. ... So little is the 
effort required to keep the body erect, that it is a sign rather of weakness 
than strength in anyone who exercises an effort to do this. This may seem 
paradoxical, but it is nevertheless the case; and he who walks 'bolt up- 



356 APPENDIX NOTES. 

right,' with his chin in the air and his back as rigid as a plank, is often 
not a strong but a weak man/' — Personal Appearances (Health Primer). 
Sidney Coupland, M.D. 

P. 30, § 43 (a.). Sleep. — "Animals possessing a well-developed nerv- 
ous system must, night after night, or day after day, or at least time after 
time, lay them down to sleep. The salient feature of sleep is the cessation 
of the automatic activity of the brain. But the condition is not confined to 
the cerebral hemispheres ; all parts of the body either directly or indirectly 
take share in it. The phenomena of sleep are perhaps seen in their 
simplest form in the winter-sleep of hibernation, to which especially cold- 
blooded animals, but also to some extent warm-blooded animals, are 
subject." — Text-Book of Physiology. Foste r. 

P. 30, § 43 (b.). Time to be allotted to Sleep. — "Where attempts 
have been made by literary characters to assign a proper period for sleep, 
they have either been guided by their known capabilities, or by what they 
have esteemed themselves capable of effecting ; or they have been led, in 
their ignorance of physiology, into Utopian considerations regarding the 
time wasted, as they conceive, in rest. How else can we account for the 
idea of Jeremy Taylor, that three hours only in the twenty-four should 
be devoted to sleep ? In an equally arbitrary manner, Baxter fixes on 
four hours, Wesley on six, and Lord Coke on seven. So much depends 
on the constitution and habits of individuals, that if some were restricted 
to the period allotted by Baxter, or Taylor especially, their lives could 
not fail to pay the forfeit. Men of active minds, whose attention is 
engaged in a series of interesting employments, sleep much less than the 
lazy and listless. It is probable that, in these cases, sleep is more intense." 
— Human Health. Robley Dunglison, M.D. 

P. 35, § 50 (a.). The Value of Competitive Sports among Students. — 

Recognizing both the value of competitive sports in inducing physical 
exercise, and the danger, especially to the ambitious, of over-training, 
a number of the leading colleges and seminaries in this country have 
well-appointed gymnasiums, with efficient medical directors, who also give 
instruction in physiology and hygiene. Among the colleges may be 
mentioned Harvard, Yale, Cornell, Amherst, Wellesley, and Smith. Prof. 
Edward Hitchcock, M.D., says of the work accomplished at Amherst: 
" From the beginning of the existence of the department of physical educa- 
tion in Amherst College it has never been the desire to develop the mus- 
cular system at the expense of any other part of the body, as is too often 
understood to be the meaning of physical education or training. This 
department was not created, nor has it been developed, for the purpose of 
extraordinary attention to the muscular system. Its sole object has been 
to keep the bodily health up to the normal standard, so that the mind may 



APPENDIX NOTES. 357 

accomplish the most work, and to preserve the bodily powers in full activity 
for both the daily duties of college and the promised labor of a long life. 
Indeed, in that particular, the precept of Cicero has been literally followed, 
namely, that bodily exercise should have for its chief object the develop- 
ment of a capacity for rational work. At the same time, it has been 
equally desired that the so-called exercises of this department should be 
mentally as well as physically enjoyed by the students, and not be made a 
tedious, mechanical, or heavy drill. . . . The results accomplished by this 
department in Amherst College lead its government to continue its exist- 
ence, and sustain it on a par with the others." 

Dr. D. A. Sargent, Professor of physical training at Harvard, in a 
paper read before the American Public Health Association, Nov. 14, 1883, 
says : " Students enter college trained in mind but not in body ; and where 
one fails for want of mental ability, ten break down for want of physical 
stamina. Many are short in stature for their age, or tall and slender, 
with a deficiency of muscular strength. Under an appropriate system of 
physical training, however, they make most rapid advancement, showing 
that their bodies had been kept in arrears while their brains were devel- 
oped. Many are ignorant of the first principles of physiology and 
hygiene, and leave school with acquired defects which are past remedying, 
but which a little appropriate knowledge and training could have obviated. 
Not infrequently the students who stood the highest in the preparatory 
schools are taken with a sort of mental dyspepsia after entering college, 
and devote most of their energies to physical exercises. This is inva- 
riably the case where the preparatory training has been forced and unnat- 
ural." 

P. 36, § 51 (a.). Cramp and Palsy from over-use of one set of Muscles. 
— A form of palsy, sometimes known as hammer palsy, occurs from 
the repeated use of a hammer in scissors-making and forging of knife- 
blades, 100 blows, it is said, being necessary to forge one blade. In one 
day a good operator will make 24 dozen blades. "Tailor's palsy," 
" milker's cramp," and " writer's cramp," are instances of the over-use 
of certain muscles. In regard to " writer's cramp," Dr. Geo. M. Beard 
states, after an examination of 125 cases, that "it is far less likely to 
occur in those who do original work, as authors, journalists, composers, 
than in those who do routine work, as clerks, book-keepers, copyists, 
agents, etc." 

P. 36, § 52 (a.). Some of the Results of Improper Muscular Exercise. 
— " Every year a number of middle-aged men, who for years or months 
have been engaged in the sedentary occupation of a profession, of litera- 
ture, or of business, at the commencement of the autumn holidays start 
for the continent or the highlands, and suddenly undertake immense 



358 APPENDIX NOTES. 

fatigue in the ascent of Alpine heights, or the no less laborious work of 
a day on the moors, Avithout the least preparation. So, also, Ave see every 
bank holiday, croAvds of young men starting off for some tremendous 
walk, or 'bucket' up the river, utterly unprepared for the task they 
undertake. Is it to be Avondered at that men return complaining that 
their holiday has done them no good ; that, instead of vigor, they complain 
of exhaustion ; that their appetite fails them, their nights are sleepless, 
their limbs ache, and they are jaded and spiritless? It is the evils pro- 
duced from this erratic athleticism that give rise to the formidable indict- 
ments that from time to time have been urged against vigorous exercise 
and the pursuit of manly sports, which, if properly managed, and under- 
taken systematically, are really the foundation of really healthy life." — 
Exercise and Training (Health Primer). C. H. Ralfe, M.D. 

" By skilful training, it is quite true that men may be, and are, brought 
to a fine external standard ; but the external development is so commonly 
the covering of an internal and fatal evil, that I venture to affirm there is 
not in England a trained professional athlete of the age of thirty-five, 
Avho has been ten years at his calling, avIio is not disabled." — Health of 
Rowing Men. Dr. E. H. Bradford. 

Hoav old this experience is, in regard to trained athletes, may be seen 
by the remark of an ancient medical writer quoted on page 34 of the text. 

P. 38, § 54 (a.). Why Young Women should have Muscular Exercise. 
— "It has been my privilege, for more than tAventy-five years, to be 
intimately associated with young women, either as teacher in the school 
room in the earlier years, or as medical practitioner, or teacher of hygiene, 
during the latter ones, and every day's added experience only confirms me 
in the position I have occupied from the first relative to the various forms 
of nervousness which characterize our sex. That position affirms that the 
best possible balance for a Aveak, nervous system, is a well-developed 
muscular system. Weak, shaky, hysterical nerves ahvays accompany soft, 
flabby muscles; and it is a mournful fact that the majority of the young 
women Avhom I meet in schools are notably deficient in muscular develop- 
ment." — Dr. Mary J. Stddley. 

P. 39, § 56 (a.). Good Effects of Certain Forms of Exercise. — "Danc- 
ing is a cheerful and useful exercise, but has the disadvantage of being 
used within doors, in confined air, and often in dusty rooms and at most 
unseasonable hours. Practised in the open air, and in the daytime, as is 
common in Prance, dancing is certainly an invigorating pastime ; but in 
heated rooms, and at late hours, it is the reverse, as these do more harm 
than can be compensated by the healthful exercise of the dance." — Dr. 
Combe, 

" The bicycle is evidently the coming horse of the future, fully compre- 



APPENDIX NOTES. 359 

hending all the advantages of horse-back riding as a healthful exercise, 
and excelling in all the pleasures of the country tourist. The velocipede 
of a few years ago is among the things that were, although it did good 
service for the time in straightening the backs and filling the chests of 
school-boys and collegians, at some risk, on account of defects in construc- 
tion ; but those defects have all been surmounted in the bicycle, and the 
risk of injury from riding is really less than that of the horse." — Dr. 
A. N. Bell, in Sanitarian. 

" Five minutes of pretty brisk exercise on the bars, or with dumb-bells, 
or in any other moderate way, repeated several times during the morning, 
will have a wonderfully good effect in promoting full respiration, purify- 
ing the blood, and in nourishing the muscular system. The writer often 
picks up a chair, or any other moderate weight at hand, and after five 
minutes' play therewith, over the head or otherwise, can feel that the 
muscles of the arm have, in that short time, secured an extra supply of 
blood, which tends at once to nourish them, and to diffuse and equalize 
the circulation." — Popular Science Monthly. Dr. Richard McSherry. 

" It is surprising how short a period of vigorous exercise, daily, will 
develop an approach to the maximum of muscular power." ... "I 
believe that one hour a day of vigorous exercise, with proper attention to 
diet, will efficiently train a well-formed and healthy man for any reasona- 
ble feat of strength or endurance." — The Source of Muscular Power. 
Austin Flint, Jr., M.D. 

P. 45, § 63 (a.). The Product/on of Corns and Callous Spots. — It is a 

law that interrupted pressure produces hypertrophy, i.e., an increase of 
nourishment or supply, resulting in an increase of size, and constant pres- 
sure produces atrophy, or a want of nourishment or supply, resulting in 
a decrease of size. By the interrupted pressure exerted in ordinary 
avocations, the epidermis of the palm and soles becomes much thickened. 
" Callous " spots upon the knees of shoemakers and the chests of other 
workmen, are to be ascribed to the interrupted pressure upon the respec- 
tive parts of lapstone and hammer, " brace and bit," " burnishers," " breast- 
drills," etc. Corns, in like manner, are the result of the irritation of 
certain portions of the epidermis lying near to the bones, by the inter- 
rupted pressure from shoes which are either too tight or too loose. On 
the other hand, the constant pressure of shoes, bandages, etc. [i.e., by 
night and day), will cause atrophy, as may be seen in the deformities of 
the feet of certain Chinese girls. 

P. 46, § 66 (a.). The Vast Number of Pores of the Skin, and of its 
Drainage Tubes. — "Taken separately, the little perspiratory tube, with 
its appended gland, is calculated to awaken in the mind very little idea 
of the importance of the system to which it belongs ; but when the vast 



360 APPENDIX NOTES. 

number of similar organs composing this system are considered, — for 
it includes the sebiparous glands, which are also agents in perspira- 
tion, — we are led to form some notion, however imperfect, of their proba- 
ble influence on the health and comfort of the individual. I use the 
words ' imperfect notion ' advisedly, for the reality surpasses imagination, 
and almost belief. ... I counted the perspiratory pores on the palm of 
the hand, and found 3528 to a square inch. Now, each of these pores 
being the aperture of a little tube of about a quarter of an inch long, it 
follows that in a square inch of skin on the palm of the hand there 
exists a length of tube equal to 882 inches, or 73£ feet. ... I think that 
2800 might be taken as a fair average of the number of pores in the 
square inch of surface, and 700, consequently, of the number of inches 
in length of the tubes. Now, the number of square inches of surface in 
a man of ordinary height and bulk is 2500 ; the number of pores, there- 
fore, 7,000,000 ; and the number of inches of .perspiratory tube, 1,750,000 ; 
that is, 145,833 feet, or 48,600 yards, or nearly twenty-eight miles." — Dis- 
eases of the Skin. Wilson. 

P. 49, § 71 (a.). Causes of Baldness. How to maintain the Health of 
the Hair. — Baldness, which, at the time of writing, is very common 
among middle-aged men, as well as among the old, results from local 
or general causes, or both combined, from the pressure of tight hats 
and caps cutting off the supply of blood, from the lack of air, by wear- 
ing head coverings too constantly, from diseases of the scalp, such as 
animal and vegetable parasitic growths, from severe inflammation, as ery- 
sipelas, or any exhausting disease, and from worry, age, or hereditary 
weakness in the parts. So-called " hair-restorers " are only valuable in so 
far as they stimulate the activity of the scalp. Some of them, however, 
including some hair-dyes, have been known to destroy the health of the 
hair, to injure the scalp, and to impair the general health. A too fre- 
quent use of a fine comb increases the activity of the skin, and causes the 
epidermis to throw off numerous cells, which, combined with the oil of 
the hair, dirt, etc., create "dandruff." Frequent brushing with a good 
stiff brush strengthens and improves the hair by invigorating the scalp, 
and increases the amount of sebaceous material, or "natural hair-oil." 
Most people have, therefore, in their power, a natural ointment which is 
far superior to pomades and artificial hair-oils. An occasional cleansing 
of the scalp with water in which are a few drops of ammonia water, fol- 
lowed by an application of a small amount of vaseline, the whole being 
preceded by a thorough brushing, is far better than the use of oils and 
grease, which may be of doubtful utility, or positively harmful. 

P. 51, § 78 (a.). The Relief of Thirst through the Skin.— "It has been 

frequently remarked that the sensation of thirst is always least pressing 



APPENDIX NOTES. 361 

in a moist atmosphere, and that it may be appeased to a certain extent by 
baths. . . . We could hardly account for an actual alleviation of thirst 
by immersion of the body in water, unless we assumed that a certain 
quantity of water had been absorbed. A striking example of relief of 
thirst in this way is given by Capt. Kennedy, in the narrative of his 
sufferings after shipwreck, when he and his man were exposed for a long 
time without water, in an open boat. With regard to his sufferings from 
thirst, he says ; ' I cannot conclude without making mention of the great 
advantage I derived from soaking my clothes twice a day in salt water, 
and putting them on without wringing. ... So very great advantage did 
we derive from this practice, that the violent drought went off, the parched 
tongue was cured in a few minutes after bathing and washing our clothes ; 
at the same time we found ourselves as much refreshed as if we had 
received some actual nourishment/ " — Text-Booh of Physiology. Flixt. 

P. 60, § 94 (a.). Sun Baths among the Ancients. — "According to 
Plutarch, when the youthful Alexander visited Diogenes at Corinth, he 
found the famous cynic tranquilly lying in the sun The warrior affably 
saluted the philosopher, and asked if he could do him any service. ' Only 
stand a little out of my sunshine/ replied Diogenes. This incident 
occurred when this renowned Athenian had reached the age of ' three- 
score and ten' — long past the eccentric days of his life in a tub, and 
his daylight lantern-searches for an honest man ; and there is good reason 
to suppose that he really valued the invigorating solar rays more than 
any boon Alexander could give. Nor was he alone in his devotion to 
sunshine, for, as we learn from Pliny, it was a common practice in Greece 
for old men to recruit their energies, both mental and physical, by 
exposing themselves naked in the sun — a fact which Hippocrates might 
have had in mind when he wrote : ' Old men are double their age in winter, 
and younger in summer.'" — Dr. C. E. Angell, in The Sanitarian. 

P. 64, § 102 (a.). The Use of Corsets in Early Times.— "The first 
mention of stays that I have ever found is in the letters of dear old 
Synesius, Bishop of Cyrene, on the Greek coast of Africa, about four 
hundred years after the Christian era. He tells us how, when he was 
shipwrecked on a remote part of the coast, and he and the rest of the 
passengers were starving on cockles and limpets, there was among them 
a slave girl out of the far East, who had a pinched wasp-waist, such as 
you may see on the old Hindoo sculptures, and such as you may see in 
any street in a British town. And when the Greek ladies of the neigh- 
borhood found her out, they sent for her from house to house, to behold, 
with astonishment and laughter, this new and prodigious waist, with which 
it seemed to them it was impossible for a human being to breathe or live ; 
and they petted the poor girl, and fed her, as they might a dwarf or a 



362 APPENDIX NOTES. 

giantess, till she got quite fat and comfortable, while her owners had not 
enough to eat. So strange and ridiculous seemed our present fashion to 
the descendants of those who, centuries before, had imagined, because they 
had seen living and moving, those glorious statues which we pretend to 
admire, but refuse to imitate." — Health and Education. Rev. Charles 

KlNGSLEY. 

P. 65, § 104 (a.). Why Improper Shoes are Worn.— " It is amazing the 
misery the people of civilization endure in and from their shoes. Nobody 
is ever, as they should be, comfortable at once in them ; they hope, in the 
long run, and after much agony, and when they are nearly done, to make 
them fit, especially if they can get them once well wet, so that the mighty 
knob of the big toe may adjust himself, and be at ease. For my part, if I 
were rich, I would advertise for a clean, wholesome man, whose foot was 
exactly my size, and I would make him wear my shoes till I could put 
them on and not know I was in them. Frederick the Great kept an aide- 
de-camp for this purpose ; and, poor fellow, he sometimes wore them too 
long, and got a kicking for his pains. Why is all this ? Why do you see 
every man's and woman's feet so out of shape? Why are there corns, with 
their miseries and maledictions? Why do nails grow in, and sometimes 
have to be torn violently off? All because the makers and users of shoes 
have not common sense and common reverence for God and his works 
enough to study the shape and motions of that wonderful pivot on which 
we turn and progress. Because Fashion says the shoe must be elegant, 
must be so and so, and the beautiful living foot must be crushed into it, 
and human nature must limp along Princes Street, and through life, natty 
and wretched." — Dr. John Brown, author of " Rab and his Friends." 

P. 70, § 111 («.)• Some of the Risks attending the Use of Unclean 
Clothing. — "Unclean clothing is sometimes a direct means of convey- 
ance of disease. The unclean fabric becomes saturated with poisonous 
substances, with the fumes of tobacco, for instance, and holds its wearer 
in a persistent atmosphere charged with unwholesome vapor. Still 
more seriously it becomes the medium of the poisons of the spreading 
diseases. I could cull from my note-books many examples of this 
last-named danger, but must be satisfied to mention one or two striking 
and brief illustrative facts. I have known scarlet fever carried by the 
clothing of a nurse into a healthy family, and communicate the disease to 
every member of the family. I have known cholera to be communicated 
by the clothes of the affected person to the women engaged in washing 
the clothes. I have known small-pox conveyed by clothes that had 
been made in a room where the tailor had by his side sufferers from the 
terrible malady. I have seen the new cloth, out of which was to come the 
riding-habit for some innocent child to rejoice in as she first wore it, 



APPENDIX NOTES. 363 

undergo the preliminary duty of forming part of the bedclothing of 
another child stricken down with fever. Lastly, I have known scarlet fever, 
small-pox, typhus, and cholera, communicated by clothing contaminated 
in the laundry." — Diseases of Modern Life. B. W. Richardson, M.D. 

P. 87, § 127 (a.). Why Tartar Forms, and Why Teeth sometimes 
Decay Readily. — The temperature of the mouth is about 100° Fahr. 
Its secretions should be alkaline ; but, owing to the heat and moisture 
in the mouth, and the retention of particles of food between the teeth, 
they are frequently acid. The decomposed food, together with the acid 
mucus, dries and hardens into "tartar" (so-called because of its re- 
semblance to the article precipitated from wine in wine-casks), a con- 
cretion which, if not removed, pushes its way towards the roots, causing 
inflammation of the gums, and decay of the teeth. The pulp cavity is 
also opened up through cracking of the enamel. Non-digested food in 
the stomach or small intestine sometimes causes the secretions of the 
mouth to be acid, and so injurious to the teeth. Sudden variations in the 
temperature of food or drink affect or impair the enamel. 

P. 95, § 138 (a.). The Importance of Thorough Chewing of Food. 
— The value of insalivation in connection with mastication is appreciated 
when we consider how difficult it is to chew dry substances like crackers 
until they are moistened. It is also almost impossible to swallow sub- 
stances which are very dry. The value of a thorough comminution of 
food, in making it more soluble, is shown by a comparison of the length 
of time it takes for a lump of sugar to dissolve, with that consumed by 
a similar lump broken into fine particles, in the same amount of water. 
Imperfect chewing, and the absence of good, sound teeth, produce many 
a dyspeptic. On the other hand, the filling of teeth, or the substitution 
of a good artificial set for teeth which are worn out and decayed, has 
often proved to the dyspeptic his only means of cure. It is well known 
to veterinary surgeons that horses sometimes lose their appetite and 
strength on account of broken or irregularly worn teeth, which prevent 
them from chewing their food. 

Old people and young children are very apt to bolt their food. As 
they do not chew well, their food should be thoroughly minced for them. 

P. 97, § 143 (a.). Time occupied in the Digestion of Various Articles 
of Food. — In 1822, Alexis St. Martin, eighteen years of age, a voyageur in 
the employ of the American Fur Company, was wounded in the left side, 
the ball perforating the stomach. Through an opening which did not heal 
entirely for a number of years, Dr. Beaumont of the U. S. Army was ena- 
bled to watch the digestion of foods in the stomach. The following extract 
from a table prepared by Dr. Beaumont shows the digestibility of various 
foods. The estimates may be considered as approximative only as to the 



364 



APPENDIX NOTES. 



generality of people, being founded upon an isolated case ; still, experi 
ments have been made upon animals which tend to confirm those made 
upon St. Martin. 



Hours. 


Min 


Pigs' feet, soused (boiled) . . 


1 


00 


Tripe, soused (boiled) . . . 


1 


00 


Soup, barley (boiled) .... 


1 


30 


Trout, Salmon, fresb (fried) . 


1 


30 


Venison steak (broiled) . . . 


1 


35 


Milk (boiled) 


2 


00 


Cabbage, with vinegar (raw) . 


2 


00 


Eggs, fresh (raw) 


2 


00 


Apples, sour, mellow (raw) 


2 


00 


Milk (raw) 


2 


15 


Turkey (roasted) 


2 


30 


Eggs, fresh (soft boiled) . . . 


3 


00 


Beefsteak (broiled) .... 


3 


00 


Mutton, fresh (boiled) . . . 


3 


00 


Soup, chicken (boiled) . . . 


3 


00 


Bread, corn (baked) .... 


3 


15 


Oysters, fresh (roasted) . . . 


3 


15 



Mutton (roasted) 3 

Eggs (hard boiled) 3 

Eggs (fried) 3 

Potatoes, Irish (boiled) .... 3 

Oysters (stewed) 3 

Beets (boiled) 3 

Green corn and beans (boiled) . 3 

Salmon (boiled) 4 

Soup, beef, vegetables, and bread 

(boiled) 4 

Duck, barn-yard (roasted) ... 4 

Heart, animal (fried) 4 

Pork, salt (fried) 4 

Veal (fried) 4 

Cabbage (boiled) 4 

Duck, wild (roasted) 4 

Pork, fresh (roasted) 5 



15 



P. 105, § 152 (a.). Relief of Constipation. —In view of the fact that 
constipation or a sluggish condition of the bowels is very common, it has 
been repeatedly urged by instructors that books upon Physiology and 
Hygiene ought to give some hints for its relief. The following will 
neither answer for all persons, nor always take the place of medicinal 
measures, which should come from the attending physician : 1st. Daily 
muscular exercise, especially walking, if not carried beyond the strength 
of the individual. Too much exercise may aggravate the trouble. 2d. 
A cold bath before breakfast for those who can stand it. 3d. Moist com- 
presses (i.e., several thicknesses of cloth) applied for two or three hours 
daily over the abdomen. 4th. Daily kneading of the bowels, especially in 
the course of the large intestine. 5th. A glass of hot or cold water before 
breakfast, or water in which a few cloves have remained over night, or in 
which there is just enough salt to give a slight saline taste. 6th. Fruit; 
oranges, apples, bananas, or grapes, before or at breakfast ; figs, dates, and 
other similar fruits throughout the day, i.e., in small quantity, or stewed 
fruit for supper, or a baked apple before retiring. 7th. Oatmeal, Indian 
meal, Graham bread and Graham crackers, sardines, coffee (and with some 
persons, tea), molasses, and molasses cake, zwieback, etc. 

While the above measures, used with discrimination, are of value, it is 
but right to state that many persons, especially those wh© take but little 
exercise, are liable to carry the hygienic treatment to extremes, and to 
injure their digestive organs by much indigestible food. 

P. 107, § 157 (a.). The Effects of too much Animal Food. — "Domi- 
nie Sampson was another man after Meg Merriles had compelled him 
to eat some of the contents of her stew-pot; and Liebig compares. the 



APPENDIX NOTES. 365 

mental attitude of three persons, — one of whom has had a substantial 
meal of meat, a second who has dined on fish, and the third who has had 
some bread and an onion. The beef of the British warrior has always 
been counted as an element in his bravery. There are, then, two very 
potent reasons why we eat too much albuminous food ; one, because it is 
pleasant to eat, and another, because it produces an agreeable mental con- 
dition. But when we have too much of a good thing, and the blood is sur- 
charged with waste, then the mental attitude is unpleasantly affected; 
there is the irascibility of gout, which is not merely the effect of pain ; and 
the melancholy of biliousness." — Food for the Invalid. Fothergill and 
Wood. 

P. 108, §158 (a.). Methods of preserving Food for Transportation. — 
The value of proper canning, and of other methods of preserving food, is 
well illustrated in the detailed instructions as to provisions, given by the 
Navy Department to the Commander of the Greely Relief Expedition in 
the spring of the present year (1884). Macaroni and vermicelli, bacon, 
preserved cranberries, etc., are to be packed in air-tight wooden kegs ; 
marrow beans, dried green peas, dried Lima beans, sweet corn, pork, salt 
beef, etc., in well-seasoned tight half-barrels; baking-powder, compressed 
vegetables, mince-meat, evaporated fruit, fried potatoes, roast chicken and 
turkey, head cheese, sausages, apple and peach butter, candied lemon-peel, 
figs, tamarinds, cooked corn, beef, preserved beef and mutton, oysters raw 
and fried, sardines, butter, etc., in hermetically sealed tins; smoked and 
dried meats well covered with canvas. Fried oysters, and eggs (boiled 20 
minutes), are to be put into cans and covered with hot lard. "The special 
mackerel and special salmon shall be of the best quality, and warranted to 
keep two years." 

Dangers arising from Improper Canning of Food. — The following is 
a summary of a paper read by Dr. J. G. Johnson before the New York 
Medico-Legal Society, Feb. 9, 1884, on Canned Goods — the Dangers to 
which Consumers are Exposed: — 

" In the canning of food, the can is filled, and placed in boiling water 
while the cap is soldered on, a hole having been punched in it, through 
which the air escapes. After which, the hole is soldered up. If the pro- 
cess has been properly performed, when the can becomes cold, the heads 
sink in and remain sunken. If decomposition begins, the gases which 
form cause the heads to bulge. To the trade, such cans are known as 
' swells.' It has been a trick of unscrupulous dealers to buy the ' swells,' 
punch a second hole, and heat the contents a second time. This process 
is known as 'reprocessing/ and has been repeated in certain instances 
four times. "While food from such cans is unfit to eat, a method some- 
times employed of sealing cans affords greater danger. It is much greater, 
'because it involves a most deadly corrosive poison, the most deadly 



366 APPENDIX NOTES. 

known to science, muriate of zinc.' There are three amalgams that may- 
be used in sealing up cans with solder. They are resin, oil, and muriate 
of zinc. The two former are harmless, but comparatively slow ; the latter 
is faster, but fraught with danger. . . . Muriate of zinc is zinc dissolved in 
muriatic acid, and the amalgam contains as much of the metal as the acid 
will accept. It is laid in a groove on the top of the can by boys with 
brushes ; the cap is placed over it, and a very hot iron is applied to melt 
the amalgam. The zinc holds the cap; the acid may — practically must 
— drop into the preserve. Or the careless boy may overdo the application 
and drop some of it into the tin. The contents then become poisonous in 
the highest degree. The fact is so well known, that in the State of Mary- 
land, where canning is a staple industry, the use of muriatic solder is for- 
bidden by law. . . . The intelligent purchaser will not buy a can of goods 
in which the brown streak of resin is not visible at the soldering point. 
To deceive him, it is alleged the canners have adopted the habit of ' bronz- 
ing' the tops of cans to conceal the absence of the resin stain. It is fair 
to infer that bronzed cans are soldered with muriate of zinc amalgam." 
The paper concludes with the following suggestions: — 
" Every cap should be examined, and, if two holes are found in it, send 
it at once to the Health Board, with the contents and the name of the 
grocer who sold it Reject every article of canned food that does not 
show the line of resin around the edge of the solder on the cap, the same 
as is seen on the seam at the side of the can ' Standard/ or first-class 
goods, have not only the name of the factory, but also that of the whole- 
sale house which sells them, on the label. ' Seconds/ or doubtful or ' re- 
processed ' goods, have a ' stock label " of some mythical canning house, 
but do not have the name of any wholesale grocer on them. Reject all 
goods that do not have the name of the factory, and also the name of 
some wholesale firm, on the label. A 'swell/' or decomposing can of 
goods, can always be detected by pressing in the bottom of the can. A 
sound can pressed will give a solid feel. When gas from the decomposi- 
tion of the food is inside the can, the tin will rattle by pressing up the 
bottom as you displace the gas in the can. Reject every can that shows 
any rust around the cap on the inside of the head of the can. If house- 
wives are educated to these points, then muriate of zinc amalgam will be- 
come a thing of the past, and dealers in ' swells ' have to seek some other 
occupation." 

P. 110, § 161 (a.). Use of Fat in Cold Climates. —The accounts 
given by travellers of the amount of food, and especially of fat, eaten 
by the inhabitants of the frigid zone, are almost incredible. The Russian 
Admiral, Saritcheff, tells of a man who ate in his presence, at a single 
meal, twenty-eight pounds of boiled rice and butter. " Sir John Frank- 
lin tried how much fat an Esquimaux boy could consume : fourteen 



APPENDIX NOTES. 367 

pounds of tallow candles quickly disappeared; and Sir John closed the 
experiment with a piece of fat pork, as he began to feel apprehensive for 
his stores. Oil is a luxury greedily devoured by the northern races, as 
was amusingly proven in a seaport town some years ago. The town was 
lighted by oil lamps, and the inhabitants remarked that they went out for 
several successive nights ; at last it was discovered that some Russian 
sailors in the harbor climbed the lamp-posts and drank the oil." — Lectures 
on Public Health. Mapother. 

P. 110, § 161 (6.). Use of Fat in Hot Climates. — "Consider how 
olive-oil is used in the warm parts of Europe, and how ghee is used 
in India, in order to satisfy yourself that oily matter may be taken with 
facility in hot countries as well as in cold. You hear nothing about 
indigestion ; you find that a bad olive harvest or a scant supply of ghee is 
a great national calamity. A Hindoo servant of a friend who kept up his 
Indian habits of eating in London, has often told me that nothing would 
make up for a deficiency of ghee or butter, and that this was the common 
experience of his countrymen at home or away from home. He looked 
upon a sip of ghee in very much the same light as that in which his fellow- 
servants looked upon a draught of beer. ' Wine is good, but oil is better, 
said a peasant to the courier who was with me in Andalusia ; and after 
gulping down a large mouthful of olive-oil, and smacking his lips more 
than once, the expression of his countenance was an apt illustration of the 
meaning of the Scriptural text which speaks of oil as making ' the face to 
shine.' Indeed, it may be taken for granted that oil may be used in large 
quantities throughout the year in the hot olive-growing countries of the 
south of Europe, not only without making people bilious, but with unmis- 
takable benefit." — London Practitioner. " A Few Words About Eatables." 
C. R. Radcliff, M.D. 

P. 114, § 169 (a.). Fasting. — "Without something to eat or drink, 
man will not live beyond a few days, or at most a week. Access to water, 
however, makes a great difference. There is a well-known case of an 
Ayrshire miner who lived twenty-three days, buried in a coal mine, with- 
out swallowing anything but small quantities of chalybeate water sucked 
through a straw. He had the advantage of being shut up in a contami- 
nated atmosphere, which, by diminishing nervous sensibility, lessened the 
cravings of hunger. Berard quotes the example of a convict who died of 
starvation after sixty-three days, but in this case water was taken. Cases 
of alleged fasting longer than this are certainly due to exposure. The 
insane appear to bear fasting better than those in their sober senses ; and, 
in some morbid conditions of the body, nourishment may certainly be 
done without for a surprising length of time. Animals have an advantage 
over man, so far as living without food is concerned." — Cassell's Maga- 
zine. 



368 



APPENDIX NOTES. 



P. 115, § 171 (a.). Salt; its Importance. —"Animals will travel long 
distances to obtain salt ; men will barter gold for it ; indeed, among the 
Gallas and on the coast of Sierra Leone, brothers will sell their sisters, 
husbands their wives, and parents their children, for salt. In the district 
of Accra, on the gold coast of Africa, a handful of salt is the most 
valuable thing upon earth after gold, and will purchase a slave or 
two. Mungo Park tells us that with the Mandingoes and Bambaras 
the use of salt is such a luxury that to say of a man, ' he flavors his 
food with salt,' it is to imply that he is rich ; and children will suck a piece 
of rock-salt as if it were sugar. No stronger mark of respect or affection 
can be shown in Muscovy, than the sending of salt from the tables of the 
rich to their poorer friends. In the Book of Leviticus it is expressly com- 
manded as one of the ordinances of Moses, that every oblation of meat 
upon the altar shall be seasoned with salt, without lacking ; and hence it 
is called the Salt of the Covenant .of Godr The Greeks and Romans also 
used salt in their sacrificial cakes ; and it is still used in the services of the 
Latin church — the ' parva mica,' or pinch of salt, being, in the ceremony 
of baptism, put into the child's mouth, while the priest says, 'Receive the 
salt of wisdom, and may it be a propitiation to thee for eternal life/ 
Everywhere, and almost always, indeed, it has been regarded as emblemat- 
ical of wisdom, wit, and immortality. To taste a man's salt, was to be 
bound by the rites of hospitality ; and no oath was more solemn than that 
which was sworn upon bread and salt. To sprinkle the meat with salt was 
to drive away the devil ; and to this day nothing is more unlucky than to 
spill the salt." — On Food. Letheby. * 

P. 120, § 178 (a.). The Amount of Nitrogen and Carbon in Various 
Articles of Food. — Table adapted to this book, from a chart by Charles 
Ekin, E.C.S., giving the per cent, of carbon and nitrogen in different arti- 
cles of food in common use. 



Gelatine and Isin£ 
Cheese .... 
Lean Meat . . 
Lentils .... 
Peas .... 
Haricot Beans . 



N. 

18.0 
4.5 
3.7 
3.7 
3.5 
3.5 



Butcher's Meat (free from bone) 3.3 

Pork (fresh) 2.8 

Egg 2.4 

Fish (fresh) 2.4 

Oatmeal 2.2 

Flour 2.1 

Barley Meal 2.0 

Rye 2.0 

Bread 1.5 



c. 

50.0 
37.8 
13.2 
37.3 
33.7 
38.0 
23.2 
22.0 
16.6 

9.6 
35.0 
39.2 
40.5 
38.3 



N. C. 

Cocoa Nibs 1.4 68.5 

Bacon (dried) 1.3 54.0 

Rice 0.8 36.0 

Milk 0.7 6.8 

Parsnip 0.3 8.6 

Cabbage 0.3 2.6 

Potato 0.2 11.1 

Turnip 0.2 5.2 

Carrot 0.2 5.4 

Butter 0.2 68.0 

Suet and Fat 0.0 79.0 

Loaf Sugar 0.0 42.5 

Arrowroot 0.0 42.8 

Apples 0.0 5.8 



APPENDIX NOTES. 369 

P. 120, § 178 (6.)- The Daily Ration of Food.— The estimates of the 
necessary quantity of food given in the text are those of the physiologist 
Moleschott, and are somewhat different from those given by Dalton, who 
says that the daily ration for a healthy man, taking free exercise in the 
open air, and living exclusively on bread, fresh meat, and butter, with 
coffee and water for drink, is 

Meat . . . . 16 oz. or 1.00 lb. avoirdupois. 

Bread ... 19 oz. " 1.19 " " 

Butter or Fat . 3£ oz. " 0.22 " 

Water . . . 52 fl. oz. " 3.38 " " 

The daily ration of the United States soldier is a liberal one, so much 
so that " company funds " during the late war were enriched by money 
allowed for the surplus retained. It is as follows : — 

Bread or Flour 22 oz. 

Fresh or Salt Beef (or Pork or Bacon, 12 oz.) 20 oz. 

Potatoes (three times a week) 16 oz. 

Rice 1.6 oz. 

Coffee (or Tea, 0.24 oz.) 1.6 oz. 

Sugar 2.4 oz. 

Beans 0.64 gill. 

Vinegar 0.32 gill. 

Salt 0.16 gill. 

P. 121, § 180 (a.). Fresh Meat as a Preventive of Scurvy. — Dr. 

T. J. Turner, Medical Director, U. S. Navy, in an article in The Sani- 
tarian, April, 1884, shows that an ample supply of fresh meat, i.e., from 
animals killed on the spot, such as the walrus and narwhal, is superior to 
any form of preserved meat in the prevention of scurvy, in that it fur- 
nishes the necessary salts and acid (probably lactic acid). In fact, he 
speaks of fresh raw animal food as the best anti-scorbutic. Where it 
cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity, he suggests that a mixture of 
sodium, potassium, and calcium phosphates be added to preserved and 
cooked meats or other foods, and that lactic acid be added to the vinegar 
used as a condiment. 

P. 123, § 185 (a.). Importance of Knowledge as to Economical as well 
as Nutritious Food. — " In this country, at the present time, the masses do 
not understand how and where to buy very nutritious foods for the least 
money. Personal instruction, cheap cookery books, health primers, and 
tracts, are not as common in this country as in some others ; in England, 
for example. By such means, the laboring classes, whose peculiar demand 
for cheap and wholesome food it should be the aim of the philanthropist 
as far as possible to satisfy, are taught how articles, which, because coarse 
and regarded as unwholesome, are very cheap, can be converted by the 
culinary art into savory and healthful dishes. By the circulation of health 



370 APPENDIX NOTES. 

treatises, they learn, also, that the actual food wants of man are small, 
and what those wants are, and what foods will best supply them. Having 
thus been taught the true physiological needs, and when and how to pro- 
cure their food, the children of toil will be blessed with knowledge that 
will bring comfort and health to their homes, and preserve the life of the 
struggling father to his family and their lives to him." 

How Good Cooking Pays. — "Foul air and overcrowding would, how- 
ever, be less fatal in its results were food understood. The well-filled 
stomach gives strange powers of resistance to the body. . . . Happily, to 
know an evil is to have taken the first step in its eradication. ... To 
have made cooking and industrial training the fashion, is to have cleared 
away the thorny underbrush on that debatable ground, the best education 
of the poor. . . . That cooking schools and the knowledge of cheap and 
savory preparation of food must soon have their effect on the percentage 
of drunkards no one can question. Philanthropists may urge what re- 
forms they will — less crowding, purer air, better sanitary regulations — 
but this question of food underlies all. The knowledge that is broad 
enough to insure good food, is broad enough to mean better living in all 
ways. . . . One woman, who has learned in any degree to order her own 
home and life aright, will be more a power with those among whom that 
life passes than a dozen average preachers." — How to Help the Poor. 
Mrs. James T. Field. 

P. 123, § 186 (a.). The High Calling of a Good Cook. —"Bad cook- 
ing is the rule, good cooking the exception. The truly artistic cook 
— the veritable cordon bleu — is a rare bird with us. The calling of 
a man cook ranks a little above that of the waiter-man ; it is, perhaps, 
nearly up to that of a first-rate barber or hair-dresser. Almost inva- 
riably the professional male cook is an exotic production, — generally 
imported from France, — the calling being beneath the dignity of a native 
American not of African descent. A hired woman cook holds her head 
somewhat higher than the waitress and laundress, not so much on account 
of her superior rank, as from certain advantages of her position. The 
responsibility of cooking, however, in small households, either rests with 
a maid of all work, or it is assumed by the mistress, whose qualifications 
are derived from perhaps a little experience, the possession of some family 
receipts, and, possibly, a cook-book. I shall not linger on this topic, but 
leave it with a few assertions. If alimentation have the importance 
and dignity which I have claimed for it ; if appetite and taste are to be 
estimated by their physiological relations, the functions of a cook are of a 
higher grade than that denoted by the facts just stated. A skilful cook, 
male or female, is entitled to as much distinction, at least, as a clever 
mechanic. The calling should be reckoned an honorable one- The science 



APPENDIX NOTES. 371 

and the art of cooking should be taught by competent professors, and should 
be embraced in the curriculum of female schools. More than this, here is 
a field for discoveries, inventions, and continued progress. To devise new 
combinations and culinary processes is a worthy object of study and 
experiment. He who may originate a new article of diet, palatable, digest- 
ible, and nutritious, by utilizing materials which are readily available, 
deserves something of the credit belonging to one who makes two blades 
of grass grow where but one grew before." — Food in its Relations to Per- 
sonal and Public Health, a paper read at the annual meeting of the American 
Public Health Association, 1876, by Austin Flint, M.D. 

P. 128, Note 1 (a.). How to Utilize Remnants of Food. —"Nothing 
so well symbolizes the economical habits of continental Europe, and 
especially Prance, as the pot au feu. This is an iron pot kept constantly 
simmering upon the fire, into which is put from day to day all the whole- 
some remnants of food which in this country are thrown away. Our 
people, in their magnificent way of doing things, never stop to consider 
how much nutriment adheres even to well-picked bones of porter-house 
steaks, mutton-chops, ribs of beef, legs of mutton, etc. All these, and 
many things besides, are put into the pot au feu ; water, seasoning, and 
fragrant herbs are added as required, and the constant simmering, — a sol- 
vent for even the toughest of Texan beef, — extracts every particle of 
marrow even, and the bones come out as clean and white as if they had 
been bleached in the sun. Among the common people, more than half of 
the nutriment of the day comes from pot au feu, and if any member of the 
family comes home at an unusual hour hungry, it affords at all times a 
meal at once warm and wholesome. This explains how, as Hugh McCul- 
loch tells us, the 40,000,000 of France could live on what the 40,000,000 of 
America throw away ; and when we consider the wretched cookery that 
prevails in this country, it is not too much to affirm that they live twice as 
well as do our farmers and day-laborers." — Lancaster Farmer. 

P. 129, § 188 (a.). The too Frequent Use of Meat and Meat Extracts. — 
Undoubtedly, meat is too frequently used to the exclusion of other foods. 
For children, meat once a day is sufficient. The recent report of Dr. D. M. 
Camman, Physician to the Orphans' Home and Asylum of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church, New York City, in the N.Y. Medical Journal, March 
29, 1884, shows that for the last twenty-five years, the children in that 
institution under eight years of age have received no meat, but in place of 
it an abundance of milk, yet the health of the children has been unusually 
good. The eating of meat three times a day, except by persons who do 
very hard physical work, is to tax the eliminating organs. The effects of 
too much meat combined with too little exercise are frequently manifested 
in the "biliousness," headache, gout, etc., which befall persons Avho "live 



372 APPENDIX NOTES. 

high." Few people need meat, ordinarily, more than twice a day, and in 
summer more than once a day. The sick are often inclined to consider 
meat, or meat teas, soups, and broths, as the most nutritious foods they can 
take, and hence sometimes delay their recovery by overtaxing the liver 
and kidneys. 

P. 129, § 188 (&.). The Adaptation of Food to the Digestive Powers. — 
" Nature has provided for the young of the mammalia, in milk, food con- 
taining all the elements of nutrition in a semi-prepared state, which only 
requires a very short time for its thorough transformation into chyle. 
The same may be said of all oviparous animals, for they live on the con- 
tents of the egg in the early stage of their existence. Nature has evidently 
wished to spare the delicate organs of the young, in the earliest period of 
life, the labor which they are destined later in life to undergo, in the elab- 
oration of their food. 

" The stomach of the strong man, of the navvy, of the drayman, may be 
compared to a quartz-crushing machine. It wants quartz, that is, strong, 
coarse foods, bread, bacon, pork, beef, to work upon, to crush. To give it 
eggs and milk would be like putting trifle or blanc-mange into the quartz- 
crushing machine ; it would merely put it out of gear. On the other hand, 
the child, the delicate woman, the dyspeptic, the invalid, have stomachs 
that may be compared to a light chocolate-crushing machine. Quartz 
they cannot crush, and the attempt would ruin the machine, although it 
may be perfectly equal to crushing light things, such as chocolate, eggs, 
etc. In sickness and in deranged health the digestive organs lose their 
tone and powers, and should be treated as Nature treats the young ; that 
is, the kind of nitrogenous food should be given which entails the least 
work on the part of the stomach. It is weakened, its muscular and 
secreting powers are diminished, and it no longer requires for its health 
many hours of rude exercise daily." — Nutrition in Health and Disease. 
Bennett. 

P. 129, § 190 (a.). The Relative Value of Various Meats.— An in- 
quiry among various charitable institutions shows that beef is relished 
best, and in the form of stews ; next, mutton and pork ; then fish, espe- 
cially in the form of chowder. Of late years, considerable has been said 
against the use of pork, and undoubtedly much of the pork sold to 
and used by the poor is unfit to eat. But if pigs are fed largely upon, 
corn, and are kept well cleansed and housed, they yield healthy pork. 
The flesh of all animals is affected by transportation in badly ventilated 
cars, and even the method of killing influences the quality of the meat. 
Fish, for instance, is said to be more palatable and nutritious if killed 
immediately after being caught, instead of being allowed to die slowly. 



APPENDIX NOTES. 373 

P. 130, § 192 (a.). The Amount of Albuminoids does not Determine 
the Nutritious Value of Foods. — We have before pointed out that the 
relative amount of albuminoids in foods does not determine as to the 
digestibility and nutritious value of the foods in question. This is as true 
in regard to fish as to other articles. " What is in general the proper 
proportion in which food constituents should be taken is not easily ascer- 
tained and has been variously stated. And in the case of each individual 
it undergoes continual modification. No one knows this better than the 
poor dyspeptic, who, having largely destroyed by his irregularities the 
guiding instinct of a healthy appetite, is compelled to study most caref ully 
what food he may venture to take and what he must avoid." 

P. 130, § 193 (a.). Raw Oysters. —"'Our practice in regard to the 
oyster is exceptional, and furnishes a striking example of the general cor- 
rectness of the popular judgment on dietetic questions. The oyster is 
almost the only animal substance which we eat habitually and by pref- 
erence in the raw or uncooked state ; and it is interesting to know 
that there is a sound physiological reason at the bottom of this pref- 
erence. The fawn-colored mass which constitutes the dainty of the 
oyster is its liver, and this is little less than a mass of glycogen ; as- 
sociated with the glycogen, but withheld from actual contact with it 
during life, is its appropriate digestive ferment — the hepatic diastase. 
The mere crushing of the dainty between the teeth brings these two bodies 
together, and the glycogen is at once digested, without other help, by its 
own diastase. The oyster, in the uncooked state, or merely warmed, is, in 
fact, self-digestive. But the advantage of this provision is wholly lost by 
cooking, for the heat employed immediately destroys the associated fer- 
ment, and a cooked oyster has to be digested, like any other food, by the 
eater's own digestive power.' This graphic description by Dr. Roberts 
tells us how it is that oysters au naturel are so much in vogue for invalids, 
as they deservedly are. Also, why oysters should not be cooked in oyster 
sauce, but put into the prepared sauce just as it comes to table. Why,,as 
King Chambers insists, in a beef-steak pudding, the oysters should not be 
cooked, but a flap of the paste raised, and the oysters popped in, just as 
the pudding is served. In making oyster pates, the paste is cooked in 
bread-crumbs, which is then taken out and the oysters put in ; after which, 
the pates are just warmed, and no more, and then brought up to the din- 
ner table. The idea that long cooking increases the digestibility of food 
is not always correct." — Indigestion and Biliousness. Fothergill. 

P. 131, § 194 (a.). Decomposing Food to be Guarded Against. — 
" Under ordinary circumstances, many cases are recorded in works upon 
poisons, such as Dr. Christison's, where decayed animal food has produced 



374 Appendix notes, 

severe and even fatal diarrhoea, in spite of cookery having concealed some 
of its repulsiveness. High game has fortunately gone out of fashion, and 
the most frequent form in which we now meet with decomposing albumi- 
noid matter is that of a fusty egg. Some housekeepers seem to consider 
this quite good enough for made dishes, and thus spoil material worth ten 
times what they save by their nasty economy. No egg should be allowed 
to enter the kitchen that has the slightest smell of rotten straw." — Manual 
of Diet. Dr. T. K. Chambers. 

P. 131, § 194 (6.). Selection of Meats. —"Good meat has the fol- 
lowing characters: 1. It is neither of a pale pink color nor of a deep 
purple tint, for the former is a sign of disease, and the latter indicates 
that the animal has not been slaughtered, but has died with the blood 
in it, or has suffered from acute fever. 2. It has a marbled appearance 
from the ramifications of little veins of fat among the muscles. 3. It 
should be firm and elastic to the touch, and should scarcely moisten 
the fingers — bad meat being wet and sodden and flabby, with the fat 
looking like jelly or wet parchment. 4. It should have little or no odor, 
and the odor should not be disagreeable, for diseased meat has a sickly, 
cadaverous smell, and sometimes a smell of physic. This is very discov- 
erable when the meat is chopped up and drenched with warm water. 
5. It should not shrink much in cooking. 6. It should not run to water 
or become very wet on standing for a day or so, but should, on the con- 
trary, dry upon the surface/' — Letheby on Food. 

P. 136, § 204 (a.). The Importance of Vegetable Food.— "The com- 
monest fault committed by housekeepers in respect of vegetables is, that 
they do not supply a/ sufficient variety, seeming to consider that the 
meat is the only part of the meal that requires care, and that all the 
rest is mere garnish; beneath the notice of a Briton, and unfit to sus- 
tain his vigorous life. Yet that is not the experience of the observers of 
mankind. The attention of Herodotus was called to the fact that the Per- 
sians, the manliest and most sporting nation in the world, had at meals not 
only several dishes, but several courses of vegetable food, preceding a very 
moderate allowance of solid meat. And Sir Henry Kawlinson describes 
the diet of this tough race as practically the same now, so that the 
assumptions of some anthropologists that hunting races are necessarily 
riotous eaters of flesh, and that carnivoracity strengthens a nation, are not 
accurate. The Persian gentleman is the spiritual father of the British 
squire ; yet, at many a hospitable board, if a guest does not fancy meat 
that day, or has eaten enough of it at a previous meal, he will have to fall 
back upon potatoes, or to solace himself by picking a few bits out of the 
sauces of made dishes, where the vegetable flavor has been saturated with 



APPENDIX NOTES. 375 

that of meat and spoilt. Usually, he goes on eating too much nitrogenous 
food out of sheer idleness." — Manual of Diet. Chambers. 

P. 137, § 205 (a.). Salads. —"Vegetables intended to be used for 
salad should all be fresh and crisp, and sweet and clean. Their colors 
should be positive and even; the reds very red, the whites very white, 
and the greens pure as those in an autumn sunset sky, except in the 
full-grown leaves, such as watercress. . . . With a little trouble, not, 
however, necessarily attended by expense, a succession may be provided 
of materials for salad all the year round, so as to have one at table 
every day. And a great preservation of health I believe it to be for 
hearty persons. The most difficult season to provide for is the latter 
end of winter, and it may be of use to mention that the dandelion is 
then a friend in need. If a pot be placed over the plant as it grows, or 
the leaves tied up like lettuce, or it be transplanted into a frame, it can be 
bleached, and thus loses its bitterness. Daisy leaves are also eatable ; 
and thus, with a sprig of tarragon, a few cold potatoes, and some ever- 
constant mustard and cress, giant cress, Australian or curled cress, an 
olive or two pared thin, or some beet-root and a slice of Madeira onion, a 
great variety of combinations may be made." — Manual of Diet. Chambers. 

P. 137, § 206 (a.). The Food Value of Peas, Beans, etc. —"Then 
there are the vegetable albuminoids, especially the pulse tribe, or leg- 
umes, which are capitally disintegrated by cooking, and best by boiling 
or baking. Thus beans, haricots and broad, peas, lentils, dahl, etc., are all 
well broken up by heat. The disintegrated flour can easily be passed 
through a sieve, and then the disintegration factor of the digestive act is 
disposed of. There can be no question about the fact that with some per- 
sons vegetable albuminoids are much more easily digested than animal 
albuminoids ; and I quite agree with Sir Henry Thompson in his remarks 
upon this subject. Besides, too, fat spreads easily over the disintegrated 
particles of cooked vegetable albuminoids, as is well seen in the baked 
beans and fat pork of New England. Indeed, by such means, fat can 
often be taken without offence to a stomach that cannot otherwise tolerate 
it; and much of the digestibility of fat depends upon the fineness of the 
particles into which it is sub-divided. Haricot beans well boiled, passed 
through a sieve, and then the floury part mixed with milk, makes an excel- 
lent soup ; quite equal in food value to any made with meat stock. The 
ordinary lentil soup is at once a most economical and a most valuable 
soup, though scarcely, perhaps, quite adapted for persons with indigestion. 
But ' the proof of the pudding is in the eating thereof/ — if it does not dis- 
agree, there is certainly no objection to its use." — Eothergill. 

P. 137, § 206 (a.). Combinations of Food. — "Certain combinations 
of the various foods of man are ■ absolutely necessary for the nutrition 



376 APPENDIX NOTES. 

of his tissues, the maintenance of the body heat, and the evolution of 
force. Consequently, we find meat, especially lean meat, and potatoes 
taken together ; pork and boiled peas ; liver and bacon ; bacon and 
beans; lean beef and fat bacon; bread and butter and cheese; raisins 
and almonds, etc. In these combinations the different forms of food 
are included, the one constituent supplementing what is deficient in the 
other. The most perfect combination, both chemically and for bulk and 
keeping qualities, is the sausage invented for the German army in the 
war with France in 1870. It consists of two concentrated forms of food, 
or, to speak more correctly, of food in a form to give the maximum of 
nutrition with the minimum of bulk, pea meal and bacon fat with condi- 
ments. It is a combination at first sight scarcely likely to form an article 
of common use, but it suits its purpose well, and supplied the absolutely 
essential material for nutrition, leaving the soldier to add bulk in any form 
he found agreeable and palatable." — The Maintenance of Health. Foth- 

ERGILL. 

P. 138, § 207 (a.). The Quenching of Thirst by Fruit rather than by 
Liquor. — " Some dyspeptics find that they must take no fluids with their 
food, and have to live on a very dry dietary, an Arab dietary. Others re- 
quire more fluids than they allow themselves. Others require a biscuit, or 
some light article of food ' betwixt meals.' When this is made an excuse 
for a glass of sherry, it is to be closely criticised as a questionable habit, 
' more honored in the breach than the observance.' To take some fruit 
would be better in every way. Some succulent fruit would satisfy the crav- 
ing ' for something,' and would not require the beverage ' to get it down.' 
Such use of fruit ought to be more general than it is at present. In all 
households where the expense does not forbid it, a large dish of picked 
fruit of various kinds, when the season permits of it, should be placed on 
the side-board every morning, with a label * Help yourself 'on it (as is 
found in the waiting-rooms of several London consultants). Children 
would soon cease to overeat themselves, just as do the assistants in con- 
fectioners' shops, when they realize that it is to be a constant affair, not 
an occasional treat to be made the most of. Such an idea is well worthy 
of adoption. If the ' temperance ' section of society would set the exam- 
ple, it would soon be followed by others, to the benefit of the digestive 
organs of many while it would be agreeable to all. Fresh gathered fruit 
out of the garden and orchard ought to be placed on the breakfast table 
every morning. For those who experience a bitter or hot taste in the 
morning on awakening, such addition to the breakfast table would be 
most acceptable." — Indigestion and Biliousness. Fothergill. 

P. 139, § 209 (a.). Miss Corson on the Use of Savory Herbs. — 
Miss Corson, Superintendent of the New York Cooking School, in her 



APPENDIX NOTES. 377 

Cooking Manual, says : " Sweet and savory herbs are absolutely indispensa- 
ble to good cooking; they give variety and savory flavors to any dish into 
which they enter, and are nearly all of some decided sanitary use; the 
different kinds called for in the various receipts further on in this work 
can be bought at almost any grocery store, or in the market ; but we advise 
our readers to obtain seeds from some good florist and make little kitchen 
gardens of their own, even if the space planted be only a box of mould in 
the kitchen window. Sage, thyme, summer savory, sweet marjoram, 
tarragon, sweet basil, rosemary, mint, burnet, chervil, dill, and parsley 
will grow abundantly with very little care ; and when dried and added 
judiciously to food, greatly improve its flavor. Parsley, tarragon, and 
fennel should be dried in May, June, and July, just before flowering ; 
mint in June and July; thyme, marjoram, and savory in July and 
August; basil and sage in August and September; all herbs should be 
gathered in the sunshine, and dried by artificial heat ; their flavor is best 
preserved by keeping them in air-tight tin cans." 

P. 139, § 210 (a.). Ice and Ice Water. — "About three pints of fluids 
are the normal allowance of water to human beings in a temperate clime 
under ordinary circumstances ; but when there is much perspiration, in- 
duced by exertion or other cause, a much larger quantity is necessary 
In iron works, the men, exposed to high temperatures and bathed in 
perspiration, when at work drink from two to four gallons of fluids 
per diem. There is a popular prejudice against drinking freely of cold 
fluids when heated, and no doubt death is sometimes so induced ; but 
the consumption of cold and even chilled drinks is now much on the 
increase. Ice is no longer regarded as a mere luxury; it has become 
a necessary of life in hot weather, and its addition to a beverage adds 
much to its agreeableness. The chilled fluid directty lowers the heat of 
the body, and abstracts from it as much heat as is requisite to raise the 
temperature of the chilled fluid to that of the body, that is, from about 
32° to 99° ; this exercises a distinct influence over the body temperature 
for some time. It is obvious from this that the quantity of the chilled 
fluid has much to do with the effect, and a pint will take twice as much 
heat to raise its temperature as will half a pint. Consequently it is not 
unimportant to the imbiber what the amount of his fluid is, as well as its 
temperature ; and to those who produce heat but slowly a sip of iced fluid 
is as cooling as a draught of it to another whose heat-forming power is 
great. The draught of the latter would be as dangerous to the first, as 
the sip of the first would be useless and ineffective to the latter. At 
all entertainments, dancing and other, where the heat becomes great, 
ice, both as a beverage and in the more solid form of ice cream, forms now 
the essential matter of the refreshment table, and is very acceptable. It 



378 APPENDIX NOTES. 

must be remembered, however, that free indulgence in iced fluids is very 
apt to induce a sharp diarrhoea in many persons. Also the free consump- 
tion of ice has not unfrequently the effect of creating even a stronger 
craving than ever for fluids, from the same action upon the throat that 
snowballs have on boys' hands — the persistent cold causes a free flow of 
arterial blood to the part. In such case a drink of warm fluid often gives 
relief." — Maintenance of Health . Fothergill. 

P. 140, § 211 (a.). Pure Spring Water. — "A country house is for- 
tunate if it possesses at a convenient distance a good, cool, copious 
spring. Nothing is more attractive or more serviceable about a Penn- 
sylvania farm than the spring house ; often jutting out from a bank or 
hillside, built low, but firmly, of gray stone, . and shaded over by a few 
old trees. Within you see the clear, transparent pool of water, in its 
reservoir of stone, pure as the air or sky overhead; and around it, or 
carefully placed in it, the pans of milk or cream, or butter, waiting for 
family use. A draught from that supply, flowing out to make a limpid 
stream through the meadow below, gives more refreshment on a midsum- 
mer day than the most tempting beverage of man's contrivance. It has 
in it no horrors, no mockery, only health." — Our Homes. Henry Harts- 

HORNE, M.D. 

P. 143, § 215 (a.). When Scum and Water Weeds are Harmful. — 

" According to Prof. W. G. Farlow, M.D., 1 the flowering plants known as 
water weeds, both those that grow from the bottom of ponds and water- 
courses, and have distinct stems and leaves, and also those that float on 
the surface as scum, are, under ordinary circumstances, harmless. They 
may prove (1) troublesome or injurious by growing so luxuriantly as to 
choke up small streams and shallow ponds; (2) by serving as points of 
attachment or shelter for injurious small plants ; and (3) by decaying in 
hot weather." 

P. 144, § 216 (a.). Purification of Water by Filtering. —The follow- 
ing home-made filter is advised by Dr. Parkes, the eminent sanitarian : 
"Take a large, common flower-pot, and put into it a bit of zinc gauze 
or a clean bit of flannel ; then coarse gravel to the depth of about three 
inches; over that the same amount of white sand washed very clean; 
and next, four inches of charcoal in small fragments, — animal charcoal 
when it can be had. On the top of all, a piece of well-cleaned sponge may 
be placed, making sure that this is changed or thoroughly cleansed once 
in a week or two ; more or less often, according to the impurity of the 
water." 

1 First Report of Louisiana Board of Health. 



APPENDIX NOTES. 379 

" If the water be impure, it may be rendered sweet by charcoal pow- 
der." "This is one of the greatest and most beneficial discoveries of mod- 
ern times, for which we are indebted to Mr. Lowiz of Petersburgh. Water 
which has a disagreeable odor, or has become putrid, may almost immedi- 
ately be freed from its nauseous taste, as well as its bad smell, and be 
converted into good drinkable liquor, by the following process : Take some 
burnt charcoal, and reduce it to a fine powder. Mix about a tablespoonful 
of this powder in a pint of water, stir it well around, and suffer it to stand 
for a few minutes. Let it then run slowly through filtering paper into a 
glass, and it will be found quite transparent, without any bad taste or 
smell, and perfectly pure for drinking. People may preserve the charcoal 
powder a long time in a small bottle well corked, and carry it with them 
when they travel." — Hufeland's Art of Prolonginy Life. Note by Erasmus 
Wilson, M.D. 

P. 147, § 221 (a.). The Use of Alcohol as a Medicine. -"Under the 
pressing demands of a progressive civilization, the hurry of business, the 
excitements of professional life, the exhaustion of the nervous system is 
enormous. Every agent that offers relief is eagerly sought, and stimu- 
lants and narcotics meet the demand. For a brief period they soothe and 
comfort . . . but the same agents that deceive into joy leave the victim in 
greater depression and with more lasting fatigue. Under their influence, 
the intellectual faculties are quickened, but, sooner or later, by their over- 
stimulation, mental weakness and sometimes imbecility results. . . . The 
daily use of alcohol by those in health is needless, and often harmful. 
Wine is a stimulant to digestion. More food is taken than is needed for 
the growth of the body and the daily waste. All food taken in excess of 
the bodily requirements is not only useless, but positively injurious, for it 
becomes a burden on the organism, and leads to disease. Alcohol also 
interferes with the proper oxidation of the waste material by offering to 
the oxygen of the blood an easily burned carbo-hydrate. The alcohol is 
consumed while the waste material, which must be oxidized to prepare it 
for elimination, escapes perfect combustion, and there results accumula- 
tion of poisonous compounds in the body, causing that class of ailments 
known as "waste diseases." This action of alcohol, harmful in health, 
leads to excellent results when properly used in disease, especially those 
characterized by high temperature and rapid emaciation. . . . But is there 
not danger that the use of alcohol, in the treatment of disease, may lead 
to habits of intemperance ? Doubtless, such cases have occurred, but we 
must remember that these habits are not infrequently referred to medical 
advice as the least unpleasant explanation of their origin. . . . But when 
there is the least danger, the physician should be ever on his guard. He 
has the right to proscribe as well as prescribe, and it is better that a 



380 APPENDIX NOTES. 

hundred men should be sick a few days longer than they otherwise might 
be than that one should get up a drunkard or an opium-eater." — Extract 
from an address delivered by Prof. J. A. McCorkle, on the Use and 
Abuse of Narcotics and Stimulants : Jan., 1884. 

P. 147, § 221 (a.). Moderate Drinking; its Dangers. — "It is a 

mournful spectacle — that of the brave, ingenuous, high-spirited man 
sinking steadily down into the degradation of inebriety ; but how many 
such spectacles are visible all over the land ! And it is not in the 
character of those alone who are notorious drunkards that such tendencies 
appear. They are often distinctly seen in the lives of men who are never 
drunk. Sir Henry Thompson's testimony is emphatic to the effect that ' the 
habitual use of fermented liquors, to an extent far short of what is neces- 
sary to produce intoxication, injures the body and diminishes the mental 
power/ If, as he testifies, a large proportion of the most painful and 
dangerous maladies of the body are due to ' the use of fermented liquors, 
taken in the quantity which is conventionally deemed moderate,' then it is 
certain that such use of them must result also in serious injuries to the 
mental and moral nature. Who does not know reputable gentlemen, phy- 
sicians, artists, clergymen even, who were never drunk in their lives, and 
never will be, but who reveal, in conversation and in conduct, certain mel- 
ancholy effects of the drinking habit 1 The brain is so often inflamed 
with alcohol that its functions are imperfectly performed, and there is a 
perceptible loss of mental power and of moral tone. The drinker is not 
conscious of this loss ; but those who know him best are painfully aware 
that his perceptions are less keen, his judgments less sound, his temper 
less serene, his spiritual vision less clear, because he tarries every day a 
little too long at the wine. Even those who refuse to entertain ascetic 
theories respecting these beverages may be able to see that there are uses 
of them that stop short of drunkenness, and that are still extremely hurt- 
ful to the mind and the heart as well as the body. That conventional idea 
of moderation, to which Sir Henry Thompson refers, is quite elastic ; the 
term is stretched to cover habits that are steadily despoiling the life of its 
rarest fruits. The drinking habit is often defended by reputable gentle- 
men to whom the very thought of a debauch would be shocking, but to 
whom, if it were only lawful, in the tender and just solicitude of friend- 
ship, such words as these might be spoken : ' It is true that you are not 
drunkards, and may never be ; but if you could know, what is too evident 
to those who love you best, how your character is slowly losing the firm- 
ness of its texture and the fineness of its outline ; how your art deteriorates 
in the delicacy of its touch; how the atmosphere of your life seems to 
grow murky and the sky lowers gloomily above you, — you would not 
think your daily indulgence harmless in its measure. It is in just such 



APPENDIX NOTES. 381 

lives as yours that drink exhibits some of its most mournful tragedies.' " — 

The Century. 

P. 148, § 222 (a.). Alcohol of little Value in Maintaining Animal Heat. 

— "... My first illustration was obtained through Sir John Richardson, 
a medical officer high in our naval service, who was early associated with 
Sir John Franklin in] Arctic exploration. It was then his conclusion that, 
even under extreme privation, the use of alcoholics did much more harm 
than good ; so that it was better to burn the alcohol in a lamp, and to heat 
tea or some other liquid with it, and by drinking this to get a real heating 
effect, than to put the alcohol into the stomach. For what heat they got 
from one was so much gain ; while the other, being only a stimulant, was 
followed by a depression which made the cold seem only more severe. On 
another expedition (the first sent to look for Franklin), Sir John Richard- 
son passed the winter with a party in the north of America, as near the 
borders of the Icy Sea as they could reach. They were well supplied with 
food, and lived in a log-house which had been built for them by our Hud- 
son's Bay Company. Sir John had made it a strict condition that his 
party should go out upon strictly total abstinence principles ; he would 
not have any spirit at all. It was a part of his work through the winter 
to make a series of magnetic observations ; and it was necessary that the 
magnetic observatory should be at a short distance from the house, in 
order to avoid the local attraction of iron. Sir John told me that he was 
accustomed to go out at night from the house to the magnetic observatory 

— as it were, to go across the street, where he would make his observa- 
tions, and return — without even putting on his great-coat. I asked him 
how cold was the temperature to which he exposed himself. He said that 
the temperature in the log-house was about fifty degrees above zero, and 
that outside it would sometimes be about fifty below zero. There was a 
change of a hundred degrees, which he found he was able to endure for a 
quarter of an hour without putting on his great-coat. That will show the 
kind of evidence which I proceeded upon. Many of our Arctic voyagers 
have given me the same experience. Sir Joseph Hooker, who served with 
Captain James Ross in his Antarctic expedition about forty years ago, has 
given me evidence of nearly the same kind. And we have now the scien- 
tific rationale of these facts, in the proof obtained by chemical means, that 
the alcohol taken into the body is not burned at all, but is expelled from 
it as a substance foreign to its constitution." — The Physiology of Alcoholics, 
by Wm. B. Carpenter, M.D., L.L.D., F.R.S. 

P. 149, § 223 (a.). Cigarette Smoking. — "Scarcely less injurious, 
in a subtle and generally unrecognized way, than the habit of taking 
' nips ' of alcohol between meals, is the growing practice of smoking 
cigarettes incessantly. We have not a word to say against smoking at 



382 APPENDIX NOTES. 

suitable times and in moderation, nor do our remarks at this moment 
apply to the use of cigars or pipes. It is against the habit of smok- 
ing cigarettes in large quantities, with the belief that these miniature 
doses of nicotine are innocuous, we desire to enter a protest. The truth 
is that, perhaps owing to the way the tobacco leaf is shredded, coupled 
with the fact that it is brought into more direct relation with the mouth 
and air passages than when it is smoked in a pipe or cigar, the effects pro- 
duced on the nervous system by a free consumption of cigarettes are more 
marked and characteristic than those recognizable after recourse to other 
modes of smoking. A pulse-tracing, made after the subject has smoked a 
dozen cigarettes, will, as a rule, be flatter and more indicative of depres- 
sion than one taken after the smoking of cigars. It is no uncommon prac- 
tice for young men who smoke cigarettes habitually to consume from 
eight to twelve in an hour, and to keep this up for four or five hours 
daily. The total quantity of tobacco used may not seem large, but, be- 
yond question, the volume of smoke to which the breath organs of the 
smoker are exposed, and the characteristics of that smoke as regards the 
proportion of nicotine introduced into the system, combine to place the 
organism very fully under the influence of the tobacco. A considerable 
number of cases have been brought under our notice during the last few 
months, in which youths and young men who have not yet completed the 
full term of physical development have had their health seriously impaired 
by the practice of almost incessantly smoking cigarettes. It is well that 
the facts should be known, as the impression evidently prevails that any 
number of these little ' whiffs ' must needs be perfectly innocuous, whereas 
they often do infinite harm." — Lancet. 

P. 194, § 269 (a.). The Resu/ts of re-breathing Expired Air. — "li 
you want to see how different the breath breathed out is from the 
breath taken in, you have only to try a somewhat cruel experiment, but 
one which people too often try upon themselves, their children, and their 
work-people. If you take any small animal with lungs like your own, — a 
mouse, for instance, — and force it to breathe no air but what you have 
breathed already ; if you put it in a close box, and, while you take in 
breath from the outer air, send out your breath through a tube into that 
box, the animal will soon faint ; if you go on long with this process, it 
will die. 

" Take a second instance, which I beg to press most seriously on the 
notice of mothers, governesses, and nurses. If you allow a child to get 
into the habit of sleeping with its head under the bed-clothes, and thereby 
breathing its own breath over and over again, that child will, assuredly, 
grow pale, weak, and ill. Medical men have cases on record of scrofula 
appearing in children previously healthy, which could only be accounted 



APPENDIX NOTES. 383 

for from this habit, and which ceased when the habit stopped." — Health 
and Education. Rev. Chas. Kingsley. 

P. 198, § 274 (a.). The Adoption of Prevalent Customs. — The emi- 
grant " should always adopt any custom which, however new and strange, 
he finds in use among the settlers of a new country. Those who have 
preceded him have had the like Saxon unwillingness to adopt a new 
habit, and have only done so from necessity, the reasons for which may 
not always be apparent. It is better to fall into it at once, and then 
seek for its explanation. ■ Especially is this caution necessary in the 
matter of food. Thus the newly-arrived emigrant in India goes on with 
his English food, his bottled beer, wine, etc., and is ere long a broken- 
down, jaundiced creature, whose liver has been ruined, firstly, by the 
work thrown upon it in accumulation of bile in it in excess, the climate 
only requiring sparing quantities of food, and, secondly, by the medicine 
taken to relieve his condition. ... In travelling, the same thing is seen, 
though to a less extent than in emigration, and the superior power of 
adaptation to the wants and requirements of the country explains the 
health of one person, and the want of it, much of the ill-health of another." 
— Maintenance of Health. Fothergill. 

P. 204, § 283 (a.). To what Contagious and Infectious Diseases are 
Due. — These germs are believed to belong to the fungi, and are known as 
bacteria. They differ in form and mode of development, depending upon 
the diseased condition with which they are associated. Some of the dis- 
eases which depend to a greater or less extent upon these germs, and hence 
are known as infectious or contagious diseases, are anthrax, diphtheria, 
leprosy, scarlet and typhus fevers, etc. It is worthy of note that recent 
investigations seem to prove that consumption and cholera have their in- 
fecting germs, which may induce in a person ready for their development 
these serious diseases. 

" The presence of septic organisms, possessing different degrees of viru- 
lence depending upon the abundance and kind of pabulum furnished 
them, and upon meteorological conditions more or less favorable, consti- 
tutes, in my opinion, the epide?nic constitution of the atmosphere, which wise 
men were wont to speak of, not many years ago, as a cloak for ignorance. 
It must be remembered that the gutter mud of to-day, with its deadly 
septic organisms, is the dust of to-morrow, which, in respiration, is de- 
posited upon the mucous membrane, of the respiratory passages of those 
who breathe the air loaded with it. "Whether the peculiar poison of each 
specific disease is of the same nature or not, — a question which can only 
be settled by extending experimental investigations in the future, — it 
is altogether probable that this factor often gives a malignant character 



384 APPENDIX NOTES. 

to epidemics of diseases which, uncomplicated, are of a comparatively 
trivial nature." — Bulletin of National Board of Health. Dr. Geo. M. Stern- 
berg, U.S.A. 

P. 204, §283 (6.). The Germ Theory of Disease. —" During the 
last few years, the germ theory of disease has rapidly been gaining 
ground. It is now, indeed, all but universally admitted that many of 
the diseases called zymotic, which comprises epidemic, endemic, and con- 
tagious diseases, owe their origin to germs introduced into the organi- 
zation from without. For these germs, however, to take root as it were, 
to develop, the animal organization must be prepared for their reception. 
The most efficacious preparation, no doubt, is a low state of vitality from 
defective nutrition. We are, throughout life, constantly receiving into the 
economy these germs of disease ; but, if the nutritive functions are sound, 
and the organization is healthy, it resists their presence and action. They 
do not find in it a suitable nidus wherein to germinate, so they are de- 
stroyed or expelled. Following this train of thought, we arrive at the 
inevitable conclusion that to escape the attack of zymotic disease we must 
be in good health, that is, in a sound nutritive state." — Bennett, Nutrition 
in Health and Disease. 

P. 206, § 284 (a.). The "Black Hole of Calcutta." — In 1756, one 
hundred and forty-six English prisoners in Calcutta were confined over 
night in an apartment about eighteen feet square and fourteen feet high, 
having but one small window. In the morning, there were alive twentij- 
three only of the strongest, who had been able to get near the window in 
the struggle that had occurred for fresh air. And of these, nearly all 
died subsequently of a very low type of typhus fever, known as " putrid 
fever." The place of their imprisonment has ever since been known as 
the " Black Hole of Calcutta." 

Of the one hundred and fifty passengers shut up in the steamer London- 
derry, with hatches battened down, during a stormy night in 1848, seventy- 
two died before morning. 

P. 206, § 284 (b.). The Air of Bedrooms, Hospital Wards, etc. — 

The air escaping from the ventilator of a crowded room is said to be 
very offensive, and, if drawn through pure water, will taint it. The air 
of bedrooms sometimes becomes so contaminated at night that sleep is 
restless or broken. The admission of a little fresh air will at such times 
often enable one to sleep soundly. Little children, or feeble persons, 
having passed the night in a close room, are liable in the morning to 
headache, want of appetite, and a general feeling of debility. 

At times, the walls, floors, and bedding of hospital wards become so 
permeated with poisonous organic matter that to stay in them is unsafe 



APPENDIX NOTES. 385 

Until a thorough cleansing and disinfection has taken place, the walls 
sometimes even requiring to be entirely replastered. 

P. 206, § 285 (a.). The Value of the Eucalyptus Tree. — " That the 
E. globulus has earned by fair experiment its name of fever-tree, as a 
preventive, seems now to be settled. Its rapid growth must make it a 
great drainer of wet soils, while its marked terebinthine odor may have 
its influence, and it is highly probable that the liberation of this essence 
into the air stands connected with its generation of ozone. But whatever 
the sanatory activities of the eucalypt may be, the fact is squarely settled 
that spots in Italy, uninhabitable because of malarial fever, have been 
rendered tolerable by the planting of E. globulus, and it is believed that a 
more plentiful planting would nearly, if not quite, remove the difficulty. 
A military post is mentioned in Algeria in which the garrison had to be 
changed every five days, such was the virulence of the malaria. A plan- 
tation of eucalypts cleared the miasma nearly away, and rendered unnec- 
essary the frequent changes of the garrison. In this case, sixty thousand 
trees were planted." — Popular Science Monthly : April, 1876. Prof. Samuel 
Lockwood. 

P. 206, § 285 (a.). Some Facts about Malaria. — The term malaria, 
at the present time (1884), is frequently applied to a number of abnor- 
mal conditions of health, instead of being used to express a cause of 
disease, as the word from its derivation implies. The reason for its 
present use seems to be that the changes in the way of warming and 
ventilating houses, change in industries, in the style of living, in the 
habits as to hours, etc., which have occurred within the last twenty years, 
have given rise to that peculiar cachexia, which is now called " malaria," 
which resembles that caused by the " fever and ague " poison. As to the 
latter, it is of interest to state the experience of Dr. A. N. Bell, the emi- 
nent sanitarian, who says " that this poison is a poor sailor, seldom cross- 
ing large bodies of water, and is most potent at night. So well do the 
natives of hot and malarious countries understand this, that at Lake Mara- 
caibo, for example, they sleep at night in their boats on the lake, after 
their labor through the day on shore, not allowing themselves to stay on 
the deadly poisonous shore after sunset, or to return to it until after sun- 
rise." 

P. 208, § 287 (a.). Carbonic Acid in Caves, Wells, etc.— "Upon the 
borders of Lake Laacher, near the Rhine, and in Aigueperse, in Au- 
vergne, there are two sources of carbonic acid so abundant that they 
give rise to accidents in the open country. The gas rises out of small hol- 
lows in the ground, where the vegetation is very rich; the insects and 
small animals, attracted by the richness of the verdure, seek shelter there, 



386 APPENDIX NOTES. 

and are at once asphyxiated. Their bodies attract the birds, which also 
perish. In former times the accidents caused by this gas in caves, mines, 
and even in wells, gave rise to the most extravagant stories. Such local- 
ities were said to be haunted by demons, gnomes, or genii, the guardians of 
subterranean treasures, whose glance alone caused death, as no trace of 
lesion or bruise was to be found on the unfortunate persons so suddenly 
struck down." — The Atmosphere. Cammile Flammarion. 

P. 208, § 288 (a.). Carbonic Acid in Dwellings, Schools, etc.— "The 
air in a 

London school-room contained 29 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000 of air, 

Munich " " 72 " " « " " " " " 

Hospital at Madrid " 43 " " " " " " " " 

Bedroom " " " 48 " " " " " " « " 

Lecture room at Paris " 67 " " " " " " " " * 

Our Homes (Health Primer). Henry Hartshorne, A.M., M.D. 

A similar excess often exists in our schools, lecture rooms, etc., causing 
the inmates to be listless and drowsy, and to suffer from headache and 
faintness. According to Pettenkofer, a man exhales every hour from six 
to seven-tenths of a cubic foot of carbonic acid gas. Angus Smith asserts 
that a good oil " moderator " lamp produces a little more than half a cubic 
foot. A common gas burner, consuming three cubic feet of gas per hour, 
gives off about as much carbonic acid as three men in the same time 
would do. . . . The light from a good and properly cared for student's 
lamp, or other reliable lamp, is much better for health as well as eyesight 
than illuminating gas ; but if the oil is poor, or the wick is turned so low 
that combustion is imperfect, a poisonous vapor mixed with floating specks 
of carbon diffuses itself through the air, and instances are on record of 
severe prostration resulting from such impurities. 

P. 208, § 288 (a.). A Simple Test for Carbonic Acid.— Br. Angus 
Smith's Household Test for Carbonic Acid is - as follows : " Procure a bot- 
tle holding ten and a half fluid ounces, fill it with the air of the room 
you wish to examine, by blowing it in with a bellows or sucking it in 
through a glass tube pushed down to the bottom of the vial ; pour in half 
an ounce of lime-water, and after corking tightly, shake well for two or 
three minutes. If, after a short time, there is no milky appearance of the 
lime-water, you may know to a certainty that the ten ounces of air in the 
bottle do not contain enough carbonic acid to form a visible precipitate of 
carbonate of lime (chalk) in the lime-water, and this has been proved by 
careful experiment on a large scale to be equal to less than six-hundredths 
of one per cent of carbonic acid in the sample of air tested ; a quantity 
which has been agreed upon by some high sanitary authorities as the limit 



APPENDIX NOTES. 387 

beyond which the accumulation of this impurity (and others, perhaps 
much more noxious, which seem always to accompany it when it arises 
from human or animal respiration) is injurious to health, and should not 
be permitted to occur." — Long Life and How to Reach It. A Health 
Primer, by J. G. Richaedson, M.D. 

P. 211, § 294 (a.). Poisonous Wall Papers. —Within the last few 
years it has been demonstrated by physicians and chemists, both in this 
country and Europe, that wall papers (especially those that are rough- 
ened or " flocked " and of a bright green color) are at times poisonous, 
owing to arsenical substances in the coloring. The arsenic acts as a 
poison by being diffused in the dust of the rooms, or, as some believe, 
in a gaseous form as arsenuretted hydrogen, when it may be recog- 
nized by a "garlic-like or musty odor." The phenomena of arsenical 
disease ordinarily produced are similar to those attending a severe cold, 
viz., an irritation of the eyes and the lining membrane of the nose and 
throat. The irritation may extend to the bronchial tubes, lungs, and lower 
portions of the alimentary canal, or the poison may produce skin erup- 
tions, or be absorbed in such quantity as to produce convulsions and vari- 
ous disturbances of the nervous system. For further information in regard 
to poisonous wall papers, the reader is referred to the investigations made 
by Dr. Kedzie, as detailed in the Reports of the Michigan State Board of 
Health. 

P. 211, § 294 (a.). Devitalized Air in Dwellings. — "In many pri- 
vate houses, houses even of the well-to-do and wealthy, streams of 
devitalized air are nursed with the utmost care. There is the lumber- 
room of the house, in which all kinds of incongruous things are huddled 
away and excluded from light and fresh air. There are dark under- 
stair closets in which cast-off clothes, charged with organic de'bris of 
the body, are let rest for days or even weeks together. There are bed- 
rooms overstocked with furniture, the floors covered with heavy carpets 
in which are collected pounds upon pounds of organic dust. There are 
dressing-rooms in which are stowed away old shoes and well-packed 
drawers of well-worn clothing. There are dining-rooms in which the 
odor of the latest meal is never absent, and from the sideboard and cup- 
boards of which the smell of decomposing fruit or cheese is always ema- 
nating, etc., etc. . . . Under such conditions thousands of families live, 
children grow up, and old people die. They may all go for years and 
suffer no acute disease, and those of the family whose duty calls them 
daily into the open air may even be healthy ; but those who have to 
remain nearly all day in the devitalized atmosphere of the home, show the 
fact in paleness of face, languor of limb, persistent sense of weariness and 
dullness of spirit. Under such conditions acute disease, epidemic fever, or 



388 APPENDIX NOTES. 

other actively dangerous malady need not occur unless it be introduced 
from without; but the home is ready for it if it be introduced." — Diseases 
of Modern Life. Benjamin Ward Richardson, M.I)., M.A., F.R.S., Eng. 

P. 211, § 294 (b.). Cleanliness versus Dirt. — "True cleanliness is a 
matter of minutiae, and admits of no subterfuge. If dirt can find a 
crack, a ledge, or an absorbent surface which cannot be reached by the 
ordinary method of cleansing, there dirt will accumulate; and where dirt 
is, there will disease be also. If we are to look to our neighbors for 
painstaking cleanliness, we must go to Holland for example, where it is 
popularly believed that no gastronomic injury would ensue from dining 
directly off the flooring-boards or tiles. Beyond the delightful duty of 
scrubbing everything which is not painted, the Dutchman and his wife 
find no such esoteric and sanitary delight as in painting everything 
which cannot be scrubbed or rubbed bright. And the Dutchman is 
right. No layer upon layer of paper hangings, with brown, gray, or 
green arsenical dust to slowly poison the more susceptible of the family. 
No sham plaster walls, porous to sewer-gas and corrupted with putrefied 
paste, can be allowed. If we have lath and plaster, let it be painted; and 
if we cannot have wainscot or mahogany kept brilliant by continual 
cleanly friction and polish, let us have a clean, painted, wooden surface, 
as artistic in tint and in the disposal of the colors and decoration as taste 
and means will afford it ; but to carry out a determined war against dirt 
and disease, let us have paint. These are no longer notions peculiar to 
the Dutch. They are sanitary axioms which we cannot afford to ignore." 
— Paper on Chemistry of Dirt. H. C. Bartlett, Ph.D., F.C.S., England. 

P. 212, § 295 («.). Dr. Richardson on Damp Air in Houses. — "It 

is not invariably the new house that is rendered dangerous by being 
damp. There are in this country many old houses, picturesquely situated, 
which are not less dangerous. The stranger passing one of these residences 
is struck by its beauty. There is the ancient moat around it, or the lake 
in front with the sailing-boat and swans, the summer-house and splendid 
trees down to the water's edge. The stranger may well enough be fasci- 
nated by the view, but let him inquire and he will too often find a truly 
ghostly history of the place. He will be told, probably with some exagger- 
ation of the truth, that the house is unlucky, that no one who has lived 
in it has reared a healthy child, and that a traditional malediction taints 
the place. If he enter the house, he finds a basement steaming with water 
vapor ; walls constantly bedewed with moisture ; cellars coated with fungus 
and mould ; drawing-rooms and dining-rooms always, except in the very 
heat of summer, oppressive from moisture ; bed-rooms, the windows of 
which are, in winter, often so frosted on their inner surface, from conden- 
sation of the water in the air of the room, that all day they are coated 



APPENDIX NOTES. 389 

with ice. The malediction on the young nurtured in that mansion may 
not be so deep as is rumored, and it is much less obscure than is imagined ; 
but it is there, and its name is ' damp.' " — Diseases of Modern Life. Dr. 
Benjamin W. Richardson. 

P. 213, § 296 (a.). The Need of Model Tenements. — "The persist- 
ence of sickness and mortality in the old crowded tenement dwellings 
of our city, and the rapid and very great falling off in the rates of 
sickness and death in the new and airy sanitary dwellings like Sir Syd- 
ney Waterlow's in London, and Mr. White's in Brooklyn, or like the 
improved districts in Edinburgh and Glasgow, show that a great work for 
the physical and moral improvement of the common classes, and for the 
prevention of poverty and causes of pauperism, must be undertaken in 
plans for dwelling reform in our crowded city. The homes of the Xew 
York City poor must be provided with sunlight, fresh air, and the moral 
safeguards of real domesticity. The Improved Industrial Dwellings Com- 
pany, of which Sir Sydney Waterlow is President, in London, report that 
in their nearly 3,000 tenements there are no fevers and deaths by conta- 
gious diseases, and in Glasgow the health officer reports that in the 
reformed dwellings he has not heard of a case of infectious disease. Let 
the deadly contagion of vices and crimes be exterminated from the habita- 
tions of the poor, and let the natural agencies of health and purity sur- 
round and fill their dwellings, as means of saving from pauperizing, sick- 
ness, and from the evils that medical charities and penal institutions 
cannot cure." 

P. 214, § 297 (a.). Out-door Air for Invalids. — For many years, con- 
sumption was considered only as an hereditary disease, now it is also 
known to be one of the results of bad air, poor food, damp dwellings, 
etc., and is most common among those who live in basements, cellars, 
and overcrowded quarters. A certain proportion of persons so afflicted 
can be cured, by living in a pure, dry atmosphere, by good nourishment, 
suitable exercise, warmth, and agreeable surroundings. The climate should be 
such that the sick may actually live a large part of the time in the open 
air. The importance of an abundance of fresh air will be appreciated 
when we consider that wild animals kept in confinement often die from 
diseases due to confined air or an insufficient amount of air. Monkeys 
are especially liable to die from consumption. On the other hand, persons 
quite frequently recover from very severe diseases, when the sick rooms 
are well aired, and nothing will injure the average patient so much as to 
shut the doors and windows, stop up all cracks, and then raise the tempera- 
ture of the air in the room in the fear that cold will be caught. An abun- 
dance of pure air properly supplied is of especial importance in the 
prevention and treatment of consumption, whether we consider it as 



390 APPENDIX NOTES. 

an hereditary disease, the result of bad hygienic conditions, or as a para- 
sitic disease, as claimed by Dr. Robert Koch of Berlin. This gentleman, 
after a series of experiments upon the lower animals, believes that the 
contagious element is a peculiar parasite' or disease germ which is cast off 
from the lungs in the act of coughing. Hereditary tendencies, bad sanitary 
surroundings, and living in an atmosphere poisoned in part by the breath 
of consumptives, all tend to induce lung disease, and for all of them pure 
air is a necessity. 

P. 214, § 298 (a.). Night Air. — "Beware of the night wind; be sure 
and close your windows after dark. In other words, beware of God's 
free air ; be sure and infect your lungs with the stagnant, azotized, and 
offensive atmosphere of your bedroom. In other words, beware of the 
rock spring ; stick to sewerage. Is night air injurious ? Is there a single 
pretext for such an idea ? Since the day of creation that air has been 
breathed with impunity by millions of different animals, tender, delicate 
creatures, some of them fawns, lambs, and young birds. Thousand of 
soldiers, hunters, and lumbermen sleep every night in tents and open 
sheds without the least injurious consequences. Men in the last stage of 
consumption have recovered by adopting a semi-savage mode of life, and 
camping out-doors in all but the stormiest nights." — Dr. F, L. Oswald. 
Popular Science Monthly : March, 1881. 

P. 216, § 301 {a.). The Passage of Air through Piaster, Bricks, etc. 
— " My illustrious preceptor, Prof. John W. Draper, demonstrated, many 
years since, by a series of ingenious experiments, the facility with which 
gases diffuse, even when opposed by a pressure equivalent to that of 
twenty atmospheres. The illustrations exhibited this evening warrant us 
in the deduction that the purity of the air in our buildings, whether private 
or public, is due not only to ventilation and to the imperfect work of the 
carpenter, but also to the porosity of the plaster, and the brick or stone 
walls through which diffusion takes place, a part of the foul air within 
being exchanged for the fresh, oxygen-abounding air from without." — 
R. Ogden Doremus, M.D., LL.D. 

P. 217, § 302 (a.). Automatic Ventilation. — As instances of auto- 
matic ventilation, may be mentioned that plan in use in the cabins of 
the ferry-boats plying between New York and Brooklyn. These boats 
carry thousands of persons every week. Before the introduction of 
the automatic ventilators, the air of the cabins, at times of day when 
the passengers were most numerous, was stifling and impure. Since their 
use, a very perceptible change for the better has been noticed. The 
following are sometimes the results of non-automatic ventilation : In an 
institution for children the ventilators were open upon the doctor's visit, 



APPENDIX NOTES. 391 

but a few moments after were found filled with old clothes. In a large 
school, where the air was impure and the cause of sickness, an investi- 
gation showed that the ventilating apparatus, though in itself good, was 
of no real value, for the janitor used the fresh-air flue of the furnace as 
a chicken-coop, and the janitor's boy the ventilator in the roof as a 
pigeon-house. 

P. 218, § 305 (a.). The Amount of Air needed for Ventilation. —"It 
is found by experience that when the room contains two hundred and 
fifty cubic feet per scholar, it is spacious enough to allow of the rapid 
diffusion of air without the production of perceptible currents. This may 
be stated in a form easier for use, viz. : The floor ought to contain twenty 
square feet for each scholar, and the ceiling ought to be twelve and a half 
or thirteen feet high. Probably this is more than is absolutely required 
by the youngest children." — Sanitary Requirements in School Architecture. 
Dr. D. F. Lincoln, Boston. 

" The only safe principle in dealing with the subject is to have a large 
margin for contingencies; and the question really is not whether 600 
cubic feet per man be too much, but whether 600 cubic feet per man be 
enough for all the purposes of warming, ventilation, and comfort. It has 
been said that the question of cubic space is simply a question of ventila- 
tion, but it is rather a question as to the possibility of ventilation. The 
more beds or encumbrances you have in a room with a limited cubic 
space, the more obstruction you have to ventilation. The fewer the beds, 
the more easy it is to ventilate the rooms. There are fewer nooks and 
corners, fewer surfaces opposed to the movement of the air, and less stag- 
nation." — Report of Barracks Improvement Commission. 

P. 219, § 308 (a.). — "Instructions for Disinfection [prepared for the 
National Board of Healthy. — Disinfection is the destruction of the poisons 
of infectious and contagious diseases. Deodorizers, or substances which 
destroy smells, are not necessarily disinfectants, and disinfectants do not 
necessarily have an odor. Disinfection cannot compensate for want of 
cleanliness, nor of ventilation. 

"I. Disinfectants to be Employed. — (1) Poll sulphur (brimstone) 
for fumigation. (2) Sulphate of iron (copperas) dissolved in water in the 
proportion of one and a half pounds to the gallon : for soil, sewers, etc. 
(3) Sulphate of zinc and common salt, dissolved together in water in the 
proportions of four ounces sulphate and two ounces salt to the gallon : 
for clothing, bed-linen, etc. 

"Note. — Carbolic acid is not included in the above list for the following reasons: it 
is very difficult to determine the quality of the commercial article, and the purchaser can 
never be certain of securing it of proper strength ; it is expensive, when of good quality, 



392 APPENDIX NOTES. 

and experience has shown that it must be employed in comparatively large quantities to 
be of any use; it is liable by its strong odor to give a false sense of security. 

"II. How to Use Disinfectants. — (1) In the Sick-room. — The most 
available agents are fresh air and cleanliness. The clothing, towels, bed- 
linen, etc., should, on removal from the patient, and before they are taken 
from the room, be placed in a pail or tub of the zinc solution, boiling hot, 
if possible. All discharges should either be received in vessels containing 
copperas solution, or, when this is impracticable, should be immediately 
covered with copperas solution. All vessels used about the patient should 
be cleansed with the "same solution. Unnecessary furniture, especially 
that which is stuffed, carpets and hangings, should, when possible, be 
removed from the room at the outset ; otherwise they should remain for 
subsequent fumigation and treatment. (2) Fumigation with sulphur is 
the only practicable method for disinfecting the house. For this purpose 
the rooms to be disinfected must be vacated. Heavy clothing, blankets, 
bedding, and other articles which cannot be treated with zinc solution, 
should be opened and exposed during fumigation, as directed below. 
Close the rooms as tightly as possible, place the sulphur in iron pans sup- 
ported upon bricks placed in wash-tubs containing a little water, set it on 
fire by hot coals or with the aid of a spoonful of alcohol, and allow the 
room to remain closed for twenty-four hours. For a room about ten feet 
square, at least two pounds of sulphur should be used ; for larger rooms, 
proportionally increased quantities. (3) Premises. — Cellars, yards, sta- 
bles, gutters, privies, cesspools, water-closets, drains, sewers, etc., should 
be frequently and liberally treated with copperas solution. The copperas 
solution is easily prepared by hanging a basket containing about sixty 
pounds of copperas in a barrel of water. (4) Body and Bed-clothing, 
etc. — It is best to burn all articles which have been in contact with per- 
sons sick with contagious or infectious diseases. Articles too valuable to 
be destroyed should be treated as follows: (a) Cotton, linen, flannels, 
blankets, etc., should be treated with the boiling-hot zinc solution ; intro- 
duce piece by piece, secure thorough wetting, and boil for at least half an 
hour, (b) Heavy woollen clothing, silks, furs, stuffed bed-covers, beds, 
and other articles which cannot be treated with the zinc solution, should 
be hung in the room during fumigation, their surfaces thoroughly exposed, 
and pockets turned inside out. Afterward they should be hung in the 
open air, beaten and shaken. Pillows, beds, stuffed mattresses, uphol- 
stered furniture, etc., should be cut open, the contents spread out, and 
thoroughly fumigated. Carpets are best fumigated on the floor, but 
should afterward be removed to the open air and thoroughly beaten. 
(5) Corpses should be thoroughly washed Avith a zinc solution of double 
strength ; should then be wrapped in a sheet wet with the zinc solution, 
and buried at once. Metallic, metal-lined, or air-tight coffins should be 



APPENDIX NOTES. 393 

used when possible ; certainly when the body is to be transported for any 

considerable distance. 

" George F. Barker, M.D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia ; 
C. E. Chandler, M.D., Coll. Phys. and Surgs., Health Dept., New 
York; Henry Draper, M.D., University of City of New York; Ed- 
ward G. Janeway, M.D., Bellevue Medical College, Health Dept., New 
York; Ira Remsen, M.D., John Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. ; 
S. 0. Vanderpoel, Health Dept., New York, Health Officer Port of 
New York." 

P. 219, § 309 (a.). Light as a Stimulus to Respiration. —"It has 
been an axiom from time immemorial that, for health, sleep should be 
taken during the still hours of night, and not during the day. The 
example of the ruddy, healthy peasant, who retires to rest with his 
cattle, and is up with the lark, has been quoted a thousand times. It 
appears to me, however, that the undeniable fact of exposure to the light 
of day being an element of health which vivifies and reddens the blood, 
was never satisfactorily explained until the publication of the experiments 
of the late Dr. Edward Smith, of the Brompton Hospital. Dr. Smith has 
proved that light is a powerful stimulus to respiration; that under the 
influence of daylight one-third more atmospheric air enters the lungs than 
under darkness, or even under exposure to artificial light. In other 
words, if, in daylight, during a given time, six hundred cubic inches of 
atmospheric air were inspired, during the same time at night only four 
hundred would enter the lungs ; a powerful additional reason and argu- 
ment for pure air at night during sleep. As the oxygenation and subse- 
quent reddening of the blood depend on its contact with atmospheric air 
in the lungs during respiration, it is clear, if we accept the above state- 
ments, that the more the body is exposed to sunlight, the more oxygen it 
will imbibe. As a necessary sequel, the more oxygen physiologically 
enters the economy, through the functions of respiration, the more per- 
fectly will all the vital processes which require oxygen be performed." — 
Nutrition in Health and Disease. Bennett. 

P. 227, § 316 (a.). Nerve Cells. — "The cell of the nervous tissue, 
like that of all other tissues, is the essential, living part. In it go on 
the mysterious molecular changes, which are presented to us as nervous 
action. To it the surrounding structures are entirely subservient. It 
is the textural Rome to which all roads turn. It is upheld by the 
connective tissue ; it is nourished by the capillaries and lymphatics ; it 
is drained by the venules. Although it differs from other cells in many 
ways that are strongly marked, in none is it more distinctive than in the 
fact that it is placed in direct, or almost direct, communication with dis- 



394 APPENDIX NOTES. 

tant structures by fibres that conduct sensations to it and by others that 
convey actions from it. The type of a nervous organism, then, is a cell, to 
which are attached conducting fibres for sensation and motion respectively. 
The cells being clustered together in what is known as gray matter, and 
the conducting fibres being composed of so-called white matter, all ner 
vous structures are made up of gray or cellular and white or conducting 
matter, be the relative proportions of each, and the form of the particular 
organ, what they may. Each group of cells — perhaps the science of the 
future will enable us to say each cell — has an intelligence of its own, which 
has long been beclouded by the name of ' function.' This intelligence, mis- 
named function, is adequate to the purpose of that particular group of cells. 
If they be the cells of a jelly-fish, they enable the animal to float on the sur- 
face of the water, to nourish itself, and to seize its prey. If they be the 
cells of a bee, they enable it to organize all the wondrous economy of the 
hive, — to select its queen, to eliminate the drones, to build the mathe- 
matical cell. If they be the cells of the lion, they form the anatomical 
substratum of all the beast's kingly and ferocious habits. Finally, when 
they become the cells of the human gray matter, they are intelligent still, 
varying in the degree of that intelligence as it mounts from the lowly 
lower end of the spinal cord, increasing in complexity as it ascends, until 
it culminates in the most wonderful gray matter of all species, — the cortex 
of the cerebrum, the seat of the mind. 

" Erom the foregoing statements it follows that all nervous organisms are 
composed of numerous foci of cellular intelligence, intercommunicating 
and bound together into one harmonious whole by the white or conduct- 
ing fibres." — In the Annals of the Anatomical and Surgical Society. 
Dr. Landon Carter Gray. 



P. 229, § 319 (a.). The Weight of the Brain. -"The average male 
brain (in Europeans) is 49.5 oz. ; the female, 44 oz. The brain of Cuvier, 
the naturalist, weighed 64.5 oz., and that of Daniel Webster 53.5 oz. 
The brains of idiots have been found to vary in weight from 27 oz. to 
as low as 8.5 oz. The brains of the insane are said to be 1\ per cent, 
below the average of the sane. Tall men, as a rule, have larger brains 
than small men: . . . The maximum size of the brain is reached, not in 
human beings, but in the elephant tribe; and after, the whales, whose 
ponderous bodies demand an enormous muscular expenditure. The ele- 
phant's brain weighs from 8 to 10 lbs. ; the whale's brain is said to weigh 
from 5 to 8 lbs. ... In addition to the propulsion of the muscles, a con- 
siderable amount of nerve force must be expended in supporting or aid- 
ing the processes of organic life, — digestion, respiration, circulation, and 
other operations." — Mind and Body. Bain. 



APPENDIX NOTES. 395 

P. 232, § 324 (a.). Dr. Jacob/' on the Development of the Brain in 
Children. — "Between the fifth and sixth years the base of the brain grows 
very rapidly; the frontal bone protrudes anteriorly and grows upward. 
The anterior portion grows considerably, but still the white substance and 
middle portion of brain are prevalent. These are the organs for the re- 
ceptive faculties and memory. About this time learning ought to com- 
mence in earnest. All the above figures point to the end of the seventh 
year as the period of beginning mental work. But the gray substance is 
also developing at that period. It ought to be influenced to a certain 
degree, like a young tree in the time of its growth, without, however, 
being strained. Many organs in the brain, — many functions. Neglect 
none ; exercise all gently. It is a mistake to exercise one faculty only. 
Our text-books, in the shape of catechisms, exercise the memory only, 
and thereby fatigue and exhaust. The compound exercise consisting in 
walking, with its changes and cooperative action, is less fatiguing than 
standing on a single leg. Learning by heart is not learning, and reciting 
is not thinking; just as little as deglutition is digestion." — Trans. N. Y. 
Academy of Medicine. A. Jacobi, M.D. 

P. 253, § 349 (a.). How the Nervous System is Injured by Overwork. — 

" You see, my dear working friends, I am great upon sparing your strength 
and taking things cannily. ' All very well,' say you, ' it is easy speaking, 
and saying " Take it easy " ; but if the pot's on the fire, it maun bile.' It 
must : but you needn't poke up the fire forever, and you may now and 
then set the kettle on the hob and let it sing, instead of leaving it to burn 
its bottom out. I had a friend who injured himself by overwork. One 
day I asked the servant if any person had called, and was told that some- 
one had 'Who was it?' 'Oh, it's the little gentleman that aye rins 
when he walks !' So I wish this age would walk more, and ' rin ' less. A 
man can walk farther and longer than he can run, and it is poor saving to 
get out of breath. ... I am constantly seeing men who suffer, and indeed 
die, from living too fast ; from true, though not consciously immoral, dissi- 
pation or scattering of their lives. Many a man is bankrupt in constitu- 
tion at forty-five, and either takes out a cessio of himself to the grave, or 
goes on paying ten per cent for his stock-in-trade : he spends his capital 
instead of merely spending what he makes, or, better still, laying up a 
purse for the days of darkness and old age. A queer man, forty years 
ago, Mr. Slate, or, as he was called, Schlate, — who was too clever and 
not clever enough, and had not wisdom to use his wit, always scheming, 
full of ' go ' but never getting on, — was stopped by his friend, Sir Walter 
Scott (that wonderful friend of, us all, to whom we owe Jeannie Deans 
and Rob Roy, Meg Merriles and Dandie Dinmont, Jinglin' Geordie, 
Cuddie Headrigg, and the immortal Bailie), one day, in Princess Street 



396 APPENDIX NOTES. 

' How are ye getting on, Schlate 1 ' l Oo, just the auld thing, Sir Walter ; 
ma pennies a' gang on tippenny eerands.' And so it is with our nervous 
power, with our vital capital, with the pence of life, — many of them 
go on ' tippenny eerands.' We are forever getting our bills renewed, 
till down comes the poor and damaged concern with dropsy or con- 
sumption, blazing-fever madness or palsy/' — Spare Hours. Dr. John 
Brown. 

P. 254, § 350 (a.). Wear and Tear of the Body. —"Again let me 
impress this truth upon you, that it is not pure brain work but brain ex- 
citement or brain distress, that eventuates in brain degeneration and 
disease. Calm, vigorous, severe mental labor may be far pursued without 
risk or detriment ; but whenever an element of feverish anxiety, wearing 
responsibility, or vexing chagrin is introduced, then come danger and 
damage." — Dr. Crichton Browne, of the Wakefield Asylum. 

" I have called these hints Wear and Tear, because this title clearly and 
briefly points out my meaning. Wear is a natural and legitimate result 
of lawful use, and is what we all have to put up with as the result of years 
of activity of brain and body. Tear is another matter ; it comes of hard 
or evil usage of body or engine, of putting things to wrong purposes, using 
a chisel for a screwdriver, a penknife for a gimlet. Long strain, or the 
sudden demand of strength from weakness, causes tear. Wear comes of 
use, tear of abuse. . . . Why is it that an excess of physical labor is better 
borne than a like excess of mental labor ? The simple answer is, that 
mental overwork is harder, because, as a rule, it is closet, or counting- 
room, or, at least, indoor, work, — sedentary, in a word. The man who is 
intently using his brain is not collaterally employing any other organs, and 
the more intense his application the less locomotive does he become." — 
Wear and Tear. S. Weir Mitchell, M.D. 

P. 254, § 350 (&.). The Causes and Evils of Hysteria. —The term 
Hysteria is ordinarily applied by the laity to alternating conditions of 
the emotions, but by medical writers, refers to various phenomena of dis- 
turbed nervous force. It can simulate every known disease. The emo- 
tional variety, while it may be the result of incipient disease of the 
nervous system or some other part of the body, of overwork, or of worry, 
is too often due to the concentration of one's thoughts upon one's self, the 
desire for notoriety, etc. If hysteria is merely " a bad habit," it should be 
broken up, not only for the welfare of the individual afflicted, but because 
impressible friends may acquire similar habits, by imitation. The cure 
consists in a change of surroundings (of habitation, companions, etc.), and 
in hygienic measures. If the hysteria is the result of disease, it needs the 
best medical aid, for it is then a serious affection. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, 
in speaking of the fact that men as well as women are liable to 



APPENDIX NOTES. 397 

hysteria, says : " I have many a time seen soldiers who had ridden boldly 
with Sheridan or fought gallantly with Grant, become, under the influence 
of painful nerve wounds, as irritable and hysterical as the veriest girl." 
In reference to the bad influences which hysterical persons exert, he writes 
truthfully : " A hysterical girl is, as Wendell Holmes has said in his deci- 
sive phrase, a vampire who sucks the blood of the healthy people about 
her, and I may add that pretty surely where there is one hysterical girl, 
there will be soon or late two sick women." 

P. 255, § 351 (a.). The Time to be Devoted to Mental Labor.— In 

regard to the number of hours of mental labor per day each one should 
pursue, there has been and is a great diversity of opinions. Bulwer 
placed the number at three, while Sir Matthew Hale allotted six. It is 
said that on being asked how it was that he could do so much and such 
excellent intellectual work, giving only three hours a day to it, Bulwer 
replied : " Because I work three hours every day, never allowing myself to 
do more even when in the mood, and always filling the three hours even 
when I may be disinclined to work." It must be borne in mind that by 
the mental labor referred to above is meant consecutive and earnest intel 
lectual effort, such as is adapted to one's ability, not the spasmodic or 
half-hearted work so often mistaken by novices for real work. 

P. 265, § 367 (a.) What the Sense of Smell does for Us. — " Of all 

our senses, smell is the one that soonest gets out of practice, so much 
so that numbers of people really do not perceive disagreeable smells 
at all. If they always accustomed themselves to take notice, and to use 
their noses, they never would consent to live in the horrid air they do 
That is a grand use of the sense of smell. It tells a person who attends to 
it, that there is some bad or injurious thing mixing itself in the air. A 
sensible person then sets to work to get rid of that thing, whatever it may 
be, and to make his air clean again. A stupid person takes no notice, and 
then his nose gets used to the disagreeable smell, and leaves off perceiving 
it." — J. Berners. Lessons on Health 

P. 283, § 384 (a.). The Importance of the Convergence of the Eyes 
in Vision. — "To direct both eyes to the same point requires a delicately 
balanced associated action of several muscles of each eye. In any part of 
the body, where a certain set of muscles are accustomed to act together in 
a given direction, this particular combination of movements becomes natu- 
ral and easy, and any other comparatively difficult. This may be appre- 
ciated, for instance, by any one who has undertaken to drive a nail into the 
ceiling, and has experienced the fatigue of the muscles of the arm and neck 
and back that follows almost immediately. We are accustomed always, in 
converging the eyes towards any small object, at the same time to direct 
them downwards, as the object is usually held in the hand, or lies on 



398 APPENDIX NOTES. 

something before us, below the level of the eyes. This facility of turning 
both eyes inwards and downwards at the same time has not only been 
acquired by the individual, but has been inherited from his ancestors, and 
has become a part of his nature ; so that the association of convergence 
with any other than a downward movement demands an extraordinary 
effort. This is a cause of fatigue in looking at pictures hung high in a 
gallery. Considerable interest has been excited recently by an affection 
noticed in miners, and called ' miner's nystagamus,' in which the external 
muscles of the eyeball seem to lose their balance, and the eyes continually 
oscillate. It is thought to result from the unnatural position of the eyes 
in working at the roof of the subterranean cavern in which these men pass 
their lives," — Eyesight and How to Care for it. American Health Primer 

P. 284, §386 (a.). Test for Color-Blindness. —Of late, in certain 
countries, much attention has been drawn to the subject of color-blindness, 
and it has been suggested that other colors than red and green should be 
used for signals. In these countries, all railroad engineers, pilots, switch- 
men, etc., are tested as to color-blindness. Such examinations should be 
universal. In old people in whom the lens is liable to be yellowish, 
colors must be very bright before they can be readily distinguished 
From examinations made by Dr. Jeffries of Boston, he concludes that 
about one male in every twenty-five is color-blind, and that color-blindness 
is much less frequent among women. It can be easily tested in schools, 
etc. (where it is found to be quite common) by Holmgren's method. "It 
consists in providing a large pile of worsteds of different colors, and 
requiring the person examined to select the skeins which resemble the 
sample shown by the examiners. This method is simple, rapid, and scien 
tific, and requires no naming of colors, which is a frequent source of fal- 
lacy and confusion. Even the normal-eyed are often at variance about 
color nomenclature. By this method a hundred persons may be accu- 
rately examined in an hour, and without error." 

P. 285, § 387 (a.). The Disadvantages of Short Sight. — Short sight 
is said to be seldom found among farmers, seamen, and Indians, but is 
quite common in large cities, among students, engravers, artists, etc., 
especially if they work by a flickering light, or one that shines brightly 
from in front directly upon the work. From an examination of the eyes 
of pupils between six and twenty-one years of age, in various schools 
throughout the country, by Drs. E. G. Loring, R. H. Derby, A. R. 
Mathewson, and J. S. Prout, it has been ascertained that among the 
lower classes 3.5 per cent were near-sighted, and among the higher 26 } 
per cent. In Germany the percentages are said to be even greater ; and 
it is rare to find army officers who do not wear spectacles. It may be 
that if as large a proportion of persons in this country with optical 



APPENDIX NOTES. 399 

defects should wear glasses as is the case in Germany, we would be 
considered as equally near-sighted. " A child may be thought a dul- 
lard, and to have no aptitude for observation or learning; he may be 
counted cold-hearted and unresponsive when his face does not light up at 
the smile of his mother or the caress of his sister ; he may be esteemed sul- 
len or stupid ; he may be counted a bad playfellow ; he may be thought 
eccentric or peculiar because he does not behave like other children. All 
this and more may be the character ascribed to him because his misfor- 
tune is to have bad sight. Beside this, it is a truth in mental philosophy 
that exactly such a character may be fastened upon him for life, because 
in his young days he was cut off from enjoyment of the visible world on 
terms of equality with his fellows Do we not know that dim-sighted 
persons are apt to be queer? If their deficiencies had been noted and 
corrected at an early stage of life, who can say how much more symmet- 
rical would have been their adult character, and how much happiness 
society and the family might have enjoyed from them." — Eye Troubles in 
General Practice. Prof. H. D. Noyes of New York. 

P. 284, Note (a.). Dr. Snelling's Test Types. — In order that read- 
ers may ascertain whether they have normal vision, a (partial) list of 
Professor Snellin's test types is subjoined. The figures over the letters 
indicate the number of feet at which the letters should be distinctly 
legible. 

1 ft. 8% in. 

OSLACHOTEU 

2 ft. 6 in. 
ULHOEDTSFG 

3 ft. 3% in. 
FOECHSUTDL 

4 ft. 6 in. 
ECLSTUFDOH 

6 ft. 1% in. 

SLFDCEUHTO 

7 ft. 

DFSEOLUHCT 

' 9 ft. 

TCHDFSEULO 



400 APPENDIX NOTES. 

P. 287, § 391 (a.). Injurious Effects of Certain Occupations upon the 
Eyesight. — "The knowledge of the injurious effects of certain kinds of 
schooling upon vision is not a new acquisition ; for Beer wrote more than 
sixty years ago, ' He who has taken the fruitless pains as often as I have, to 
,try and impress upon parents and friends, in the most friendly manner and 
upon the most convincing grounds, the mischievous effect upon the eyes 
of growing children of the forcing-house system of the present day, will 
still be disheartened to find his well-intended counsel, based upon long 
experience, and often repeated, either entirely neglected, or listened to 
only by a few/ . . . Because people hold the imperfectly understood 
principle that children should be constantly occupied, there is at all 
hours of the day a master at hand. There is reading, writing, language- 
learning, drawing, arithmetic, embroidery, singing, piano and guitar-play- 
ing without end, until the persecuted victims are rendered pale, weak, and 
sickly, and to such an extent short-sighted or weak-sighted, that finally 
counsel must be obtained. ... Of what avail is it to many charming 
girls, many estimable women, that as children they were regarded as 
prodigies, when the soundness of their eyes and the acuteness of their 
vision has been sacrificed." — Eyesight, Good and Bad. R. B. Carter, 
F.R.C.S. 

P. 305, § 403 (a.). Sense Education. — Since writing what he has in 
connection with the development of the voice in those born deaf or with 
feeble minds, the writer has become acquainted with the excellent work 
accomplished by " sense education " in the Seguin Physiological School, 
New York. The following extract from a newspaper article, referring 
especially to the education of the voice in the feeble-minded at the 
above-named school, is so apropos that it is appended : " There is that 
most depressing sight, the mouth of the child of feeble mind and body. 
Open it stands, gaping wide, with its pendulous lower lip. The facial 
muscles are ignorant of their duty. It is not will-power alone which 
will ever bring those lips together. Still this can be and is corrected 
The child is taught to close it. Constantly the gentle teacher brings 
her finger to the child's lip, and an effort is made, after a while, by a 
self-sustained will, to close it. Sometimes a straw is held in the mouth 
to show the child how to grasp it with the lips. After a while, when his 
attention is occupied with something else, he forgets to close it. The 
act of having his mouth open is noticed, and he shuts it at a word of 
command. He may have been perfectly unable a few months ago to 
arrest a flow of saliva from his mouth ; but now this secretion, which was 
over abundant, has ceased. He might have been once a saddening sight 
to see ; but now much of that idiotic blankness has gone. But is it sim 
ply the child's appearance which has been improved ? No. A thousand 



APPENDIX NOTES. 401 

things may arise from this simple mouth-instruction which are of advan- 
tage to the child in the sense of a brain-awakening. His speech has been 
thick and unintelligible. How could the poor lad pronounce a word prop- 
erly, hampered as he was with rigid lips ? Now he is taught to pronounce 
letters properly. Every sound of every letter may have to be taught him. 
The lips become pliant, vibrate at last, and from what was a dumb, inani- 
mate, resoundless block, distinct musical words now are flowing. The 
visitor is deeply impressed with what he has witnessed. He has seen the 
effect of constant, assiduous, philosophical training. He looks at a series 
of portraits of the children, and marks how rapid have been the changes. 
It is this sense-education which has taken from these drear faces their ani- 
mal look, and made them human once more. Dr. Seguin it is, who, 
though he be dead now, has given new life to many of God's creatures, 
and it is his wife who has carried out his work." 

P. 315, § 413 (a.). Rules for the Care of the Voice.— "No man 

who is conscious of the ability to speak effectively can undervalue the 
power of a pleasant voice ; and no hearer of a melodious voice but will 
acknowledge its influence. We have, probably, all been charmed and our 
attention riveted by such a voice, even when the discourse was not above 
commonplace. The converse of this is, alas, more often met with. It 
is a fact that many of the greatest thinkers, scholars, and writers use 
in public speaking and reading, a heavy, low monotone, or they rasp the 
ear with a high and strident pitch. Their ' thoughts that breathe, and 
words that burn/ fall lifeless and cold, nay, even weary, and repel their 
listeners, who experience a sense of relief when the inharmonious voice 
ceases; the speaker also being thankful that his painful struggle to be 
heard is over. How much the influence of the unfortunate possessor of 
such a voice is nullified ! If a statesman, how small must be his success 
in directing the fortunes of a nation ! If a clergyman, painfully will he 
feel that his earnest endeavors avail him nothing. If a barrister, he sees 
judge and juryman sleeping, and to the detriment of his client he may 
lose his carefully prepared case. Yet, in almost every instance, a voice 
which has no inherent beauty may, by correct training, become attractive 
and pleasant, and obtain clearness, smoothness, and commanding reso- 
nance." 

"Rules. 1. Never endeavor to produce a vocal tone without having plenty 
of breath, and that thoroughly under control. 2. Hold the breath when 
inspired, and commence to empire only on commencing to speak or sing, 
that is, at the moment it is required to set the ligaments in vibration. 
3. Do not think that loudness is essential to force or beauty ; shouting is 
always injurious. The telling quality of laryngeal tone depends solely on 
the amplitude of the vibrations, and this is controlled solely and entirely 



402 APPENDIX NOTES. 

by the will, which directs the due proportion of air to set the vocal liga- 
ments into more or less full vibration. For all purposes of practice it is 
especially advisable for the pupil to sing piano, which term does not imply 
diminished vigor, but simply reduced amplitude of the vibrations. 
4. Never use the voice when functional failure gives warning that the 
organ or the general health is disordered. 5. Do not attempt to use the 
voice in unfavorable circumstances, as in the open air, especially if the 
weather be cold or raw, nor in a room impregnated with tobacco smoke, 
foul air, or dust. Above all, do not use the voice, even for conversation, 
in trains or vehicles, or in any circumstances of noise which will require 
undue functional exertion. In this connection it will be important to keep 
quiet and avoid chattering and laughing between songs or the acts of a 
drama or opera. 6. Do not use the voice for too long a period at a time 
but always cease before fatigue is experienced. Especially avoid encores of 
songs, which have required much exertion, or production of a telling high 
note in the final cadenza. It is but rarely that a song is sung as well on a 
re-demand a*s at first. 7. After continued singing or speaking, be careful 
to prevent exposure of the throat, either externally or internally, to the 
impressions of cold air. The same remark applies as to the necessity of 
guarding against sudden changes from hot to cold air, even when the voice 
has not been used." — Voice, Song, and Speech. Browne. 



INDEX. 



INDEX. 



[references are to pages.] 



A. 

Abdominal cavity, location and con- 
tents, 17. 

type of breathing, 187 N. 2. 
Abdomen, Muscles of, 19. 
Abductor muscles, 27. 
Absorbents, Chemical, 219. 
Absorption of food, 99. 

by lacteals, 99. 

by veins, 99. 

by the skin, 32 n. 1, 51. 

of infectious disease by clothing, 71 
N. 2. 
Accessory digestive organs, 85. 
Accommodation, Power of, 280. 

Value of, 281. 
Achilles, Tendon of, 22. 
Acids as poisons, 344. 
Action of heart, how controlled, 159 N. 1. 
Active tissues of the body, xi. 
Aero-Narcotic poisons, 348. 
Adam's apple, 306. 
Adductor muscles, 27. 
Adipose tissue, 30. 
Adulteration of food, 122. 
Afferent nerves, 238 N. 1. 
Air, Tidal, 190. 

Residual, reserve, and complemental, 
192. 

quantity breathed, 190. 

changes in, during respiration, 193. 

of country and city, 213. 

how devitalized, 211. 

Impure, its dangers, 214. 

Purification of, 214, 219. 
Air cells or vesicles of the lungs, 186. 
Air passages in respiratory apparatus, 

181-186. 
Albino, Skin of, 45. 

Eyes of, 275. 
Albumen in food, 108. 

of the blood, 169. 
Album inose, 97. 
Albuminoid food substances, 106, 108. 

Mode of preserving, 108. 
Alcoholic drinks, Classification of, 146. 



Alcoholic drink, Action of, in the bodv, 
146. 

Use of, in connection with the preser- 
vation of animal heat, 147, 381. 

as medicinal agents, 147, 379. 

Effects of moderate drinking of, 380. 
Alcohol as a poison, Relief from, 350. 
Alimentary canal,— location, structure, 

and secretions, 76. 
Alkalies and their salts as poisons, 345. 
Amoeba, 171, ix. 
Amoeboid movements, 171, ix. 
Amylaceous compounds, 112 n. 1. 
Anatomy, Definition of, vii. 
Animal heat, 195. 

how produced, 195. 

how ascertained, 196. 

range in health and in disease, 196. 

how modified, 196. 
Animal matter of bones, 4. 

poisons, 347. 

foods, 128. 

Life, functions of, 225. 
Antiseptics, what they are, and when 

used, 218. 
Aorta, The, 158. 
Aponeurosis, or fibrous sheath of 

muscles, 22 n. 2. 
Apoplexy, 231. 

Treatment of, 330. 
Appendix vermiformis, 85. 

notes, 351. 
Appetite, 118. 

Voracious, 119 n. 1. 
Aqueous humor of eye, 278. 
Arachnoid membrane, fluid and sac, 228. 
Arbor vitae, 234 sr. 1. 
Arches of Corti, 299. 
Arms, Bones of the, 14. 
Arteries, location and use, 160. 

structure and properties, 161. 
Arteries, Pulsations of, 162. 
Arterial blood, 158. 
Arterioles, 161. 
Artesian wells, 140 N. 2. 
Articulations. See Joints. 



406 



INDEX. 



Articular cartilage, 8. 

surfaces of bone, 7. 
Artificial respiration, Methods of es- 
tablishing, 324-329. 

reflex actions, 251. 

Ventilation, 215 N. 2. 
Arytenoid cartilages, 306. 
Ascending colon, or large intestine, 85. 
Assimilation by cells, xi. 

in bones, 6. 

of food, 100. 
Astigmatism, 286. 
Atlas, The, 7. 
Atmosphere, Thickness of, 200. 

Pressure of, 200. 

Composition of, 200. 

Essential ingredients of, 201. 

other ingredients, 202. 
Atropine. See Belladonna. 
Auditory canal, 293. 
Auricle of the ear, 293. 
Auricles of heart, 156. 
Auriculo-ventricular openings of the 

heart, 156. 
Axis, The, 7. 
Axis-cylinder of nerves, 225. 



B. 



Backbone, The, 11 w. 4. 
Ball-and-socket joints, 7. 
Base of the heart, 153. 
Bathing, Value of, 54. 

kind and adaptability, 55. 

for children and adults, 56. 

Effects of, 57. 

Times for, 58. 

in hot and cold water, 56. 
Baths, Varieties of, 59, 60. 

Adjuncts of, — friction, soap, etc., 60. 
Beans, peas, etc., 137. 
Belladonna, effect on pupil of eye, 276. 

Antidote for, as poison, 350. 
Bicuspid teeth, 88. 
Bile and its uses, 94. 
Biliary duct, 85. 
Binocular vision, 283. 
Bioplasm, ix N. 2. 
Bladder, The, 17 N. 1. 
Bleeding, How to stop, 338. 
Blind spot of the eye, 277. 
Blood, its movements, 157, 158. 

Impure, 157. 

Pure, 158. 

its use, 168. 
Blood, Transfusion of, 168. 

Composition of, 168. 

microscopic appearance, 168. 



Blood globules, their structure, appear- 
ance, and use, 169, 170. 

its coagulation, 171. 

Quantity of, 173. 

Quality of, 173. 

Changes in, during respiration, 194. 

poisoning through the skin, 175 n. 1. 
Blood-vessels, 160-166. 

of bone, 5. 
Blushing, Cause of, 245. 
Body, Tissues of, xii. 

Fluids of, xii. 
Boiling of food, 123. 
Bones, object and number, 1. 

Form and uses of, 1, 2. 

structure, 2, 3. 

composition, 4. 

nutrition, 5. 

Properties of, — growth, elasticity, 
strength, 4, 5. 

Repair of, 334 n. 1. 

relations, Fig. 1. 

of the feet, 14. 

of the extremities, 14. 

of the skull, 16. 

of the spinal column, 11. 

Broken, treatment of, 333. 
Boots and Shoes, 65. 
Bowels, 83. 
Brain, location and arrangement, 227. 

size and weight, 229. 

Faculties of, 231. 
Bread, 135, 136. 
Breastbone, 2. 

Breathing through the mouth, 182. 
Broiling of food, 123. 
Bronchial tubes, 184. 
Bronchioles, 185. 
Bruises, Treatment of, 334. 
Bruise spot, 172. 

Burns and scalds, Treatment of, 331. 
Butter, 133. 
Buttermilk, 132. 



C. 



Caffeine of coffee, 145. 

Caisson disease, to what due, 201 N. 2. 

Canals, Haversian, 5 N. 3. 

Semicircular, in the ears, 297. 
Canaliculi of bones, 5 N. 3. 
Cancellous tissue of bone, 3. 
Candy, The use of, 113 N. 2. 
Canine teeth, 87. 
Capillaries, location, structure, 162. 

Circulation in, 163. 

Lymphatic, 175. 
Carbonateof lime,in bonesand teeth,115. 



INDEX. 



407 



Carbonic acid, in the atmosphere, 201, 
207. 

in the expired breath, 193. 

effects when breathed in large amount, 
208. 
Carbo-hydrates, 106 n. 2. 
Carbonic oxide, 209. 
Cardiac opening of stomach, 81. 
Care of the eyes, Directions for, 286. 

of the ears, Directions for, 301. 

and culture of the voice, Directions for, 
314, 401. 
Cartilage, Articular, 8. 

of eyelids, 271. 

of trachea, 184. 

of larynx, 306. 
Casein in food, 109. 
Catalytic or ferment action, 95. 
Cataract, 279 n. 1. 
Catching cold, How to avoid, 62 N. 1. 
Cavities of the skeleton, 15. 

of the heart, 155. 
Cells, shape, movements, contents, re- 
production, ix. 

Death of, x. 

Powers of, x. 

how connected, xi. 

Nerve, 227. 
Cell life, ix, x, xi. 
Cellars' foul air, 211. 
Cereal grains as food, 134. 
Cerebro-spinal nervous system, 224. 
Cerebrum, location, 227. 

structure, 229. 

Functions of, 231. 

Location of faculties in, 232. 
Cerebellum, location, 227. 

structure and functions, 234. 
Cerebral hemispheres, 230. 
Cerebration, Unconscious, 251 N. 2. 
Cervical vertebrae, 11 N. 5. 

curve of spinal column, 12. 
Cesspools, Dangers of, 211 N. 1. 
Chemical processes, viii. 
Cheese, 133. 

Chest, Contents of cavity of the, 16. 
Chink of the glottis, 307. 
Chloride of sodium. See Salt. 
Chloral hydrate, use as narcotic, 149. 

Antidotes for, 351. 
Chlorine as a disinfectant, 218. 
Chocolate, 145. 
Choke damp, 208 n. 1. 
Choroid coat of the eye, 274. 
Chordae tendinae of the heart, 156 N. 3. 
Chyle, 84 N. 1, 98. 
Chyme, 97. 
Ciliae, x, 182. 
Ciliated cells of the air passages, 182. 



Ciliary body of eye, 277. 

processes, 277. 

muscle, 277. 
Circulation, Organs of, 153. 

in arteries, 161. 

in capillaries, 163. 

in veins, 167. 

Force and rapidity of, 166, 167. 
Circulating fluids, their value, 177. 
Circle or field of vision, 280. 
Clothing, Objects of, 62, 63. 

Proper and improper, 63-65. 

Quantity of, 67, 68. 

qualities necessary, etc., 69-72. 

unclean, Dangers of, 70. 

Bed, 70. 
Coagulation of blood, 171. 
Coats or tunics of the eye, 273. 
Coccyx, The, 13. 
Cochlea of the ear, 297. 
Cocoa, 145. 
Coecum, The, 85. 
Coffee, 144, 145. 

Colon, The, or large intestine, 85. 
Color of the eye, to what due, 276. 

of the blood, 170. 

in dress, 71. 

blindness, 284. 
Coloring matter of the skin, 45. 
Cold baths, 56. 
Column, The spinal, 11. 
Columns of spinal cord, 236. 
Collar bone or clavicle, 2. 
Combustion, Spontaneous, 197 N. 1. 
Commissure, 230. 
Compact tissue (of bone), 3. 
Complemental air, 192. 
Condiments, 138. 

Consonant sounds, Production of, 311. 
Conjunctiva, 271. 
Conjunctivitis, 271 n. 2. 
Connective tissues, xi. 
Constipation, Treatment of, 304. 
Contraction of the heart, 158. 
Contusions, Treatment of, 335. 
Conversion of food into tissues, 95. 
Convolutions of brain, 230. 
Convulsions, Treatment of, 330. 
Cooking and preparation of food, 123. 
Coordination of movements, 234. 
Cords, Vocal, 307. 
Cornea of the eye, 273. 
Corpora striata, 240 n. 2. 
Corpuscles of the blood, 168. 
Corrosive poisons, 344. 
Cotton as clothing, 72, 73. 
Cranium. See Skull. 
Cranial nerves, 240. 

cavity, location and contents, 16. 



408 



INDEX. 



Creatinine, 100. 
Cricoid cartilage, 306. 
Crowd poisoning, 206. 
Crystalline lens, 278, 279. 
Cuticle, The, or scarf skin, 43. 

D. 

Dark colored clothing, Use of, 71. 
Death, Local and general, ix. 
Decomposed meat, Danger of eating, 

131. 
Decussate, 227. 

Decussation of optic nerves, 282. 
Defects in vision, 283. 
Defective hearing, Causes of, 300. 
Deglutition, how effected, 96. 
Dental pulp, 87. 
Dentine, 86. 
Dentition, 89. 
Deodorizers, 218. 

Descending colon or large intestine, 85. 
Dermis, The, 43. 
Development, definition, viii. 
Devitalized air in dwellings, 211. 
Dextrine, 95. 
Diaphragm, location, 16. 

importance in breathing, 189. 

importance in production of voice, 314. 
Diapedesis, Description of, 171. 
Diastole of the heart, 158 N. 3. 
Dietaries, 119. 
Dietetics, 119-124. 
Digestion, Organs of, in general, 76. 

organs of, Accessory, 85. 

healthy, Requirements of, 95-101. 
Disease germs, 204. 
Disinfectants, 218. 
Dislocation, Definition of, 9. 

Reduction of, 333. 
Drinks, 139. 
Drinking water, 140-144. 
Drowning, What to do in cases of, 324- 

329. 
Drum of the ear, 294. 
Duct, Nasal, 272. 

Biliary, 85. 

Thoracic, 85. 

Pancreatic, 85. 

Salivary, 93. 
Dura mater, 228. 
Dust in the air, 203. 
Dyes, Poisonous, in clothing, 71. 
Dyspepsia, Relief from, 101 N. 2. 

E. 
Ear, location and structure, 293. 
External, 293. 
Middle, 295. 



Ear, Internal, 297. 

Bones of, 296. 

wax, 294. 

speculum, 294. 

Glands of, 294. 

Proper care of, 301. 
Efferent nerves, 238 n. 1. 
Eggs, 133. 

Emergencies, general directions, 321- 
324. 

special directions for cases of injury, 
drowning, and poisoning, 324. 
Emmetropic or normal eye, 284. 
Emulsion, 30 n. 1. 
Enamel of the teeth, 86. 
Endocardium, 155. 
Endosmosis, xi, 99. 
Endostium, 4. 
Epidermis, location and structure, 44. 

Uses of, 45. 
Epiglottis, The, 306. 
Epithelial cells, 78 sr. 1. 
Epithelium, 78 n. 1. 
Error in refraction, 285. 
Essential organs of the voice, 305. 
Excretion, Definition of, x. 
Exercise. See Muscular exercise. 
Exosmosis, xi. 

Expiration, Movements of, 188. 
Expired air, Dangers from, 193. 
Extensor muscles, 27. 
Extremities, Bones of the, 14. 
Eucalyptus tree and sunflower, Value 

of, in drying the soil, 206 K. 1. 
Eustachian tube, location, 79. 

use, 297. 
Eye, its use, 270. 

its structure, 273. 

Coats of, 273. 

Humors of, 278. 

Proper care of, 286. 
Eyeball, 270-273. 
Eyebrows, 270. 
Eyelashes, Uses of, 270. 
Eyelids, 270. 

F. 

Facial nerves, 241. 
Fainting fits. See Syncope. 

Fat of the body, its location and struc- 
ture, 30. 

Uses of, 31. 

amount, 31. 

How to increase or diminish, 32. 

as food, sources, digestibility, 110, 111. 
Ferment, Definition of, 95. 
Fibrin as a constituent of food, 108. 
Fibrinogen, 172 N. 1. 
Fibrous tissue, xii. 



INDEX. 



409 



Fibres and fibrillae of muscles, 24. 

Nerve, 225. 
Field of vision, 280. 
Fifth pair of nerves, 241. 
Filtration, 144. 
Filters, 144 n. 2. 
Fits, Convulsive, 330. 

Fainting, 330. 
Fire damp, 210. 
Fire-places, 216 n. 2. 
First teeth, 87. 
Fish as food, 130. 

as brain food, 130 n. 2. 
Flesh as food, 128, 129. 
Flexor muscles, 27. 
Flour, 134, 135. 
Fluids of the body, xii. 
Focus of the rays of light, 279. 
Food, Definition of, 104. 

Positive and negative, 104. 

Sources of, 104. 

Classification of, 105. 

Albuminoid constituents of, in general, 
106. 

Albuminoid constituents of animal, 108. 

Albuminoid constituents of vegetable, 
108. 

constituents, Xon-nitrogenous, 109. 

constituents, Inorganic, 113. 

vegetable acids, 116. 

Quantity of, necessary, on what it de- 
pends, 116. 

daily amount requisite, 119. 

Selection and preparation of, 120. 

Adulteration of, 122. 

proper preparation, preservation, and 
cooking, 123, 124. 
Foods, Classification of, 128. 

Animal, 128. 

Vegetable, 134. 

fruits, 138. 

Cereal grains, 134. 

condiments, 138. 

drinks, 139. 
Foreign bodies in the eye, nose, ears, 

and throat, Removal of, 339, 340. 
Fractures and dislocations, 333. 
Freckles, Cause of, 45. 
Frost bite, Treatment of, 332. 
Fruit as food, 138. 
Frying food, Proper method of, 124. 
Function, viii. 

of accommodation, 277. 



G. 



Gall-Bladder, 94. 

Garne as food, 129. 
Ganglia, 227. 



Ganglionic system of nerves. See 

Sympathetic system. 
Gaseous diffusion in the atmosphere, 207. 

diffusion in the lungs, 191. 
Gastric or stomach digestion, 96. 

juice, 82. 
Gases in the atmosphere, 206. 

as poisons, 347. 
Gelatine as an element of food, 109. 
j Germ theory of infection, 204. 
1 Glands, Sweat, 45-47. 

Sebaceous, 47. 

Salivary, 92, 93. 
Globules, Blood, 168. 

Lymph, 173. 
Glosso-pharyngeal nerve, 264. 
Glottis, 184. 
Glucose, 94, 95, 98. 
Gluten as an clement of food, 109. 
Glycogen, 94. 
Gray matter of the nervous system, 225- 

227. 
Gullet, 80. See Oesophagus. 
Gum as food, 112. 
Gums, The, 86. 
Gustatory nerve, 263. 
Gymnasium, 39. 



Hairs, location, structure, uses, 48, 49. 
Hand, The adaptation of, for general 
use, 14. 

The adaptation of, for exercising the 
sense of touch, 261. 
Haversian canals, 5 N. 3. 
Hay fever, Production of, 267 n. 1. 
Head, Movements of, how effected, 7. 
Hearing, how effected, 292. 

Organs of, 293. 

Physiology of, 299, 300. 

Defective, 300. 
Heart, location and relations, 153. 

coverings and lining, 155. 

structure, 155. 

Valves of, 156. 

Pulsations of, 158. 

Circulation through, 157. 

Sounds of, 158. 
Heat, Animal, 195. 
Heat exhaustion, Treatment of, 330. 
Hemiplegia, 237 n. 2. 
Hemispheres of brain, 230. 
Hemoglobine of the blood, 170. 
Hemorrhage, Treatment of, 338. 
Hepatic veins, 99 ; Fig. 45. 
Hinge joints, 7. 
Hippophagy, 129 N. 



410 



INDEX. 



Histology, vii n. 1. 

Hot baths, 56. 
Humors of the eye, 278. 
Humerus, 2. 
Hunger, Cause of, viii. 
Hydro-carbons, 106 N. 2. 
Hygiene, Definition of, vii. N. 
Hypermetropia, 285. 

I. 

Ileo-coecal valve, 83. 
Illuminating gas, 210. 
Imbibition, Definition of, xi. 
Immovable joints, 6. 
Impurities in the air, Effects of, 213. 

in water, Effects of, 140. 
Incisor teeth, 87. 
Incus, The, 296. 
Inferior costal type of breathing, 187 

N. 2. 
Inunction, Value of, 60. 
Inorganic food constituents, 113. 
Insalivatiou, 95. 
Insensible perspiration, 47. 
Insensibility, 322. 
Inspiration, 186. 

Intensity of sound, to what due, 310. 
Inter-costal muscles, 187 N. 1. 
Intestines or bowels, 83. 

Small, 83. 

Large, 85. 
Intestinal juice, 85. 

digestion, 98. 

villi, 84. 
Intoxication, Relief of, 329. 
Involuntary muscles, 22. 
Iris, The, 275. 
Iron, as constituent of food and of the 

body, 116. 
Irritability, Property of, its uses, 223. 
Irritant poisons, 344. 



Joints, Varieties, 6. 

Uses and structure, 7, 8. 
Juice, Gastric, 82. 

Intestinal, 85. 

Pancreatic, 94. 

K. 

Kidneys, Location, 17 ; Fig. 15. 
use in connection with the skin, 52. 



Labyrinth, Bony, of the ear, 297. 

Membraneous, 298. 
Lacteals, 84. See Lymphatics. 



Lachrymal or tear sacs, 272. 

glands, 272. 

canals, 272. 

secretion, 272. 
Lacunae in bones, 5 n. 3. 
Laryngoscope, The, 309 n. 1. 
Larynx, The, location, 79. 

use in respiration, 184. 

use in voice, 305. 
Lead poisoning, 346. 

pipes, Objections to, for conveyance of 
drinking water, 141. 
Legumine in food, 109. 
Lens, Crystalline, 278. 
Leucocytes or white corpuscles, 171 N. 1. 
Ligaments, 8. 

Ligaturing of the blood-vessels, 172. 
Light, Value of, to health, 219. 

colored clothing, Use of, in warm 
weather, 71. 
Limbs, The. See Extremities. 
Lime as constituent of food, 115, 116. 

juice, Value of, 121. 
Linen as clothing, 72, 73. 
Liquor sanguinis, 168. 
Liver, The, location and functions, 94. 
Long sight, 285. 

Loose clothing, Importance of, 63. 
Lungs, their shape and location, 180. 

Free movements of, how provided for, 
180, 181. 

structure, 181. 

Lobules of, 184. 

Air vesicles of, 186. 
Lymph, 99, 173. 

globules, 173. 
Lymphatic glands, 176. 

capillaries, 175. 
Lymphatics, The, 174. 

of bones, 6 N. 1. 

of the skin, 51. 

M. 

Malaria, what it is, 206. 

Malleus, The, 296. 

Malt liquors, 147. 

Marrow of bones, 3. 

Marsh gas, 209. 

Mastication, 95. 

Mastoid cells, 296. 

Meat, 128. 

Mechanical processes, viii. 

Media of the eye, 278. 

Median line of the body, 154 n. 

Medulla oblongata, Location of, 227. 

arrangement and function, 234. 
Medullary canal and membrane of 
bones, 4. 



INDEX. 



411 



Membranes of brain, 228. 
Membrana tympani, 294-296. 
Membraneous labyrinth, 298. 
Memory, 231. 
Meninges of the brain, 228. 
Meibomian glands, location, structure, 

and function, 271. 
3f esentery, The, 83. 
Metallic substances as poisons, 345. 
Middle ear, 295. 

Migration of white blood globules, 171. 
Milk as food, 131, 132. 
Milk teeth, 87. 
Mind, The organ of the, 231. 
Mineral baths, 59. 

matter of bones, 4. 
Mitral valve of the heart, 156 N. 3. 
Mixed joints, 6. 
Model tenements, 213. 
Modulation of voice, Parts concerned 

in, 305. 
Molar teeth, 87. 
Motion, Production of, 240. 
Motor roots and nerves, 238. 
Mouth, The, and its appendages, 78. 

breathing, Dangers of, 182. 
Movable joints, 6. 
Mucus, 78. 

Mucous membrane, 77. 
Mud baths, 60. 
Muscles, number and uses, 19. 

shape and arrangement, 19. 

Classification of, 19. 

relations and mode of attachment, 22. 

structure, 23. 

blood and nerve supply, 25. 

composition, 25. 

functions, 26. 

Contractility of, 26. 

Groups, names, and actions of, 27. 

Opposing or antagonistic, 28. 

of expression, 28. 

Development of, 29. 
Muscle fibres, 23, 24. 
Muscular exercise, 34. 

Proper, 34. 

Uses of, 35. 

Improper, 36. 

modified by age, 37. 

modified by sex, 37. 

modified by time of day, 38. 

Forms of, 39. 

in gymnasium, 39. 

Passive, 40. 
Muscular contraction, 26. 

sense, The, 258. 
Mushrooms, poisonous and edible varie 
ties, 348. 

How to distinguish, 348. 



Musical sounds of the voice, to what 
due, 310. 
how heard, 299. 
Myopia, 285. 

M". 
Nails, the structure and use, 49. 
Narcotics, 149. 
Narcotic poisons, 350. 
Nasal cavities, Nerves of, etc., 266. 

ducts, The, 272. 

fossae, 266. 

twang, what it is and how caused, 311. 
Natural ventilation, 215 n. 2. 
Nerve cells, 227. 

fibres, 225. 

filaments, 225. 
Nerve force, character, and rapidity of, 
247. 

Quantity of, 253. 

Transference of, 248. 

Perversion of, by worry, overwork, 
etc., 253. 
Nerves, structure, 226. 

function, 227. 

Decussation of, 227. 

of the skin, 44. 

of sight, 282. 

of smell, 266. 

of taste, 263. 

Cranial, 240. 

Fifth pair of, 241. 

Seventh pair of, or facial, 241. 

Tenth pair of, or pneumagastric, 242. 

Spinal, 237. 
Nervous actions, in general, 248. 

Reflex, 249. 

of cerebro-spinal nerves in conjunction 
with sympathetic nerves, 249. 

of sympathetic system, 250. 

of spinal cord, 250. 

Artificial, 251. 

Value of, 252. 

Direct, 248. 

Special, 248. 
Nervous energy, 253. 
Nervous matter, in general, 225. 

White, 225. 

Gray, 227. 
Nervous system, functions, 223. 

Cerebro-spinal, 224. 

general arrangement and structure, 
224. 

sympathetic or ganglionic, 243. 

Development of, 254. 
Neuralgia, 241 n 3. 
Neurilemma, Tne, 226. 
Nitrogen of the air, 202. 
Nitrogenous food constituents, 105. 



412 



INDEX. 



Non-nitrogenous food constituents, 

109. 
Normal digestion, 100. 
Nose and its cavities, 266. • 

Breathing through the, 183 N. 2. 
Nostrils as channels of respiration, 181. 
Nutritious, The use of the term, 107 N. 1, 

128 N. 2. 
Nutritive processes, 177. 
Nuts as food, 138. 

O. 

Ochlesis, Definition and dangers of, 206. 
Oesophagus, The, 80. 
Old sight, what it is, 286. 
Oleaginous group of food substances, 

112 n. 1. 
Olfactory nerve, 266. 

bulb, 266. 
Openings of the heart, 156 

of the stomach, 81. 
Opium, its use and abuse, 149. 
Opthalmascope, its use, 283. 
Optic nerve, location, 274. 

Conveyance of impressions of light by, 
282. 

tubercles, 282. 

thalami, 240 x. 2. 
Orbits, 270. 
Orbital cavity, 270. 
Organ, Definition of, xi. 
Organs of taste, 263. 

of respiration, 180. 

of circulation, 153. 
Organs of sight, 270. 

of hearing, 293. 

of voice, etc., 305. 
Organic food substances, 105. 
Organic matter, Exhaled, 205. 

in drinkingwater, how detected, 143 N.l. 
Osmosis, Definition of, xi. 
Ossicles or bones of the ear, 296. 
Outline of study, xi. 
Oval opening or window of internal ear, 

298. 
Oysters, 130, 373. 
Oxygen of the air, 202. 
Ozone of the air, 202. 

P. 

Pain, Value of, etc., 259. 

Palate, hard and soft, Composition of, 

78. 
Paleness, Cause of, 245. 
Pancreas, Location and function of, 94. 
Pancreatic juice, 94, 98. 
Pancreatine, 98 n. 2. 



Papillae of the skin, 43. 

of the tongue, 263. 
Paralysis, Cause of, 231. 
Paraplegia, 237 N. 2. 
Parasite poisoning, 131 n. 
Parotid glands, location and function, 

92. 
Patella or knee-pan, 1 N. 1. 
Peas, 137. 

Pelvic cavity, Contents of, 17. 
Pelvis, The, 13. 
Pepsine, 97. 
Peptone, 97 N. 1. 
Pericardium, 155. 
Periosteum, 2. 
Peristaltic motion, 80. 
Peritoneum, 83 n. 4. 
Permanent or second set of teeth, C7. 

time of appearance, 89 n. 1; Fig. CI. 
Perspiration, 46, 47. 
Perspiratory glands. SeeSweatglancl: . 
Pharynx, 78. 

as an air passage, 184. 
Phosphorus, 116. 
Phosphate of lime in bones, teeth, etc., 

115. 
Physiology, Definition of, vii. 
Physical culture, 34. 
Pia mater, 229. 
Pitch of sounds, to what due, 292. 

of voice, to what due, 310. 
Pivot joint, 7. 
Plasma, 1C8. 
Plastic, Tissue-making or flesh-forming, 

107 n. 3. 
Pleura, 180 n. 1. 
Pleural cavity, 180. 
Pleurisy, 181 N. 2. 
Plexus of nerves, 243. 
Pneumogastric nerve, 242. 
Poisons, Definition of, and general di- 
rections as to relief from, 340-344. 

Individual, 344. 
Pork as food, 129. 
Portal vein, 84. 
Posterior nares, 79. 
Potatoes, 136. 
Poultry as food, 129. 
Power of accommodation, The, 280. 
Presbyopia, 286. 
Processes, Chemical, viii. 

Mechanical, viii. 

Vital, viii. 

Nutritive, 177. 

Voluntary, 225. 

Involuntary, 225. 
Proper bathing, Results of, 58. 
Proteids, 106 N. 1. 
Protoplasm, Properties of, ix. 



INDEX. 



413 



Ptyalin of the saliva, 95. 
Pulmonary artery, 157. 

veins, 158. 

vesicles, 186. 
Pulp of the tooth, 87. 

cavity, 87. 
Pulse, The, 158 n. 2, 162. 
Pupil, The, of the eye, 275. 
Pure blood, 158. 
Purification of air, 214. 

of water, 144. 
Putrefaction of food, causes and pre- 
vention of, etc., 108. 
Pyloric opening of stomach, 81. 
Pylorus, The, 81. 

Q. 

Quality of vocal sounds, 311. 

how improved, 312. 
Quarantining, Use of, 205. 

R. 

Rain water, 139. 

Reach of the voice, 312. 

Reaction after bathing, 58. 

Receptaculum chyli, 85. 

Rectum, The, Fig. 32. 

Red corpuscles of the blood, 169. 

Reflex action, in general, 249. 

of cerebro-spinal nerves in conjunction 
with sympathetic nerves, 250. 

of sympathetic system, 250. 

through spinal cord, 250. 

Artificial, 252. 
Refrigerator, connection with sewer, 

211 n. 1. 
Regulation of temperature, 197. 
Repair of broken bones, 334 n. 1. 
Residual air of the lungs, 191. 
Respiration, Objects of, 180. 

Organs of, 180. 

Process of, 186. 

Types of, 187. 

how effected, 188. 

Movements of, 189. 

Renovation of air in, 191. 

Changes in the air during, 193. 

Changes in the blood during, 194. 
Respirators, Use of, 204 n. 1. 
Retina, 277. 
Ribs, The, 13. 
Rickets, what due to, 5. 
Roasting, 123. 

Rods and cones of the retina, 277 N. 2. 
Rotator muscles, 27. 
Round window of the eye, 298. 
Russian baths, 59. 
Rye, 134. 



S. 

Saccharine group of food substances, 

112 n. 1. 
Saccrum, The, 13. 
Saliva, 78, 93. 
Salivary glands, 92. 
Salt, 115. 

Salt-water bathing, 59. 
Sarcolemnia, 23. 
Savory herbs, use as condiments, 139. 
Scalds and burns, Treatment of, 331. 
Scapula or shoulder blade, 2; Fig. 1. 
Scarf-skin, 43. 
Sciatica, 226 N. 2. 
Sclerotic coat of the eye, 273. 
Scurvy, Causes of, 121. 
Condition of blood in, 172. 
Use of salad vegetables as preventive 

of, 137. 
Use of raw meat as preventive of, 369. 
Use of lime juice as preventive of, 121. 
Sebaceous glands, 47. 
Secretion, Definition of, 8 n. 2. 
Semicircular canals, 297. 

Function of, 299. 
Semilunar valves of the heart, 156 N. 3. 
Sense of touch, 261. 
of taste, 262. 
of smell, 265. 
of sight, 270. 
of hearing, 292. 
Sensation of weight, resistance, etc., 
258. 
of pain, 259. 
Sensations, common, 257. 

how conveyed and perceived, 238. 
special or the senses, 257. 
Sensible perspiration, 47. 
Sensory impressions, 238. 

roots and nerves, 238. 
Septic poisons, 348. 
Septum of the nose, 266. 
Serous membrane, 83. 
Serum, 83 N. 3, 155. 
Sesamoid bones, 1 n. 1. 
Seventh pair of nerves, 241. 
Sewer gas, Composition of, and dangers 

from, 210. 
Shallow breathing, Dangers of, 191 n. 1. 
Shoes, proper and improper, 65-67. 
Sight, Organs of, 270. 
Silk as a material of clothing, 72, 73. 
Sinews, 22. 

Skeletal muscles, The, 19 n. 2. 
Skeleton, Cavities of the, 15. 
Skim milk, 132. 

Skin, The, structure and properties of, 
43. 



414 



INDEX. 



Skin, Appendages of, 45. 

Functions of, 50-52. 

Relation of, to other organs, 52. 

Care of, Chaps. VI., VII. 
Skull, The, its location, attachments, etc., 

7,16. 
Sleep, amount and use, 30, 354. 
Smell, Organs of, 266. 

Acuteness of, 265-267. 

Development of, 267. 
Soap, Kinds and value of, 60. 
Soft palate, 78. 

water, 143. 
Solaria or sun rooms, 60 N. 2. 
Sound, Production of, 309. 
Sounds, consonant and vowel, Produc- 
tion of, 311. 
Special sensations, 257. 
Speech, 304. 

Spinal column, Use, form, and number 
of bones in, 11. 

curvature, how produced, 13 N. 1. 

cord, location, 228. 

structure and uses, 236. 

nerves, 237. 
Spirometer or lung tester, 192. 
Spleen, The, location and function of, 85. 
Sprains, Treatment of, 334. 
Spongy tissue of bone, 3. 
Spontaneous combustion, 197 n. 1. 
Stapes, The, 296. 
Starch as an element of food, 111, 112. 

Digestion of, 95. 

Substances allied to, 112. 
Sternum, The, or breastbone, 2. 
Stewing, 123. 

Stomach, structure, location, capacity, 
80. 

digestion in, 96. 
Stove gas, Causes and effects of, 209. 
Striated muscles, 24. 
Sublingual glands, The, 93. 
Submaxillary glands, The, 92. 
Suffocation, What to do in cases of, 

324-329. 
Sugar as food, 113. 

in candy, 113 N. 2. 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, 210. 
Sun baths, their value, 60. 

stroke, What to do in cases of, 330. 
Superior costal breathing, 187 n. 2. 
Supra-arytenoid cartilages, 306. 
Suspended matters in the air, 203. 
Suture joints, 6. 

Swallowing. See Deglutition. 
Sweat glands, 45, 46. 
Sweet-bread. See Pancreas. 
Sympathetic system 6f nerves, location 
and structure, 243. 



Sympathetic system of nerve, Function 

of, 245. 
Syncope, Treatment of, 330. 
Synovial membrane, 8. 

fluid, 8. 
Systole of the heart, 158 N. 3. 



Tactile, corpuscles, 44. 

sensation, 257. 
Tactus eruditus, its value, 262. 
Taste, Organs of, 263. 

how affected, 262, 263. 

how influenced, 265. 
Tea as food, 144. 
Tears, origin and use, 272. 
Teeth, uses and structure, 86. 

location, names, number, 87. 

Care of, 91. 
- Temperature of the body, 195. 
Temporary or first set of teeth, 87. 

time of appearance, Fig. 41. 
Tendons, structure, location, and use, 22. 
Tendon of Achilles, 22. 
Tensor tympani muscle, 297. 
Tenth pair of nerves. See Pneuino- 

gastric nerve. 
Tepid baths, 56. 
Test types, Samples of, 281 n.; 284 n. 2; 

399. 
Test of tight chest clothing, 64 n. 
Thein of tea, 145. 
Theobromine, 145. 
Thermometer, medical or clinical, The 

use of, 196 N. 2. 
Thoracic cavity, 16. 

duct, 85, 175. 
Thymus gland, 177 N. 1. 
Thyroid cartilage of the larynx, 306. 
Tight boots and shoes, 67. 

clothing, Effects of, 64. 
Tissue, Cancellous or spongy, of bone, 3. 

Compact, 3. 

Sub-cutaneous, 44. 

Connective, what it is, xi. 

Connective, of skin, 44. 
Tissues, Definition of, xi. 

Classification of, xi. 

List of, in the body, xii. 
Tobacco, its effects, 148. 
Tongue, Nerves of, 263. 

papillae, etc., 263. 
Tonsils, 183; Fig. 33. 
Tooth bone or ivory, 86. 
Touch, Organs of, 261. 

Delicacy of, 262. 
Trachea, The, 184. 
Transfusion of blood, 168. 



INDEX. 



415 



Transverse colon, 85. 

Trichinae, 122. 

Tricuspid valves, 156 n. 3. 

Trunk, 11 n. 3. 

Tunics of the eye, 273. 

Turbinated bones of the nose, 182 n. 1. 

Turkish baths, when to be used, 59. 

Tympanum, Cavity of, location and 

contents, 295. 
Types of breathing, 187 n. 2. 



U. 

Ulna bone, The, 2. 
Unconsciousness, Causes of, 322. 
Unwholesome food, 122, 131. 
Urea, 100. 

V. 

Valve, Ileo-coecal, 83. 
"Valves of the heart, 156. 

of veins, 166. 
Valvulae conniventes, number, location, 

structure, and use, 84. 
Vascular, 2. 
Vasa vasorum, 160 n. 3. 
Vaso-motor nerves, 243 N. 1. 
Vegetable acids, 116. 

foods, 134. 

poisons, 347. 
Vegetables, 136. 
Veins, use, structure, 165. 

Flow of blood through, 167. 

Pulmonary, 158. 
Venae cavae, 157 N. 1. 
Venous system, Capacity of, 166. 

or impure blood, 157. 
Ventilation, in general, 214, 215. 

Amount of cubic space needed in, 217. 

Natural and artificial, 215 n. 2. 
Ventilators, 215. 
Ventricles of heart, 156. 

of larynx, 307. 

of brain, 230 n. 3. 
Ventriloquism, how produced, 312. 
Vermicular motion. See Peristaltic 

motion. 
Vermiform appendix, 85. 
Vertebrae, location, number, use, 12. 
Vertebral column. See Spinal column. 
Vestibule of the ear, 297. 



Vibrations of sound waves, 292. 
Villi, The, of the intestines, 8i. 
Viscera, 17 N. 1. 
Vision, how effected, 279, 280. 

Organs of, 270. 

Binocular, 283. 

Defects in, 283. 
Vital capacity, 192. 

processes in the body, viii, ix. 

knots, 235. 
Vitreous humor of the eye, 278. 
Vocal cords or bands, location, 307. 

function, 307. 

sound, variations in, 310. 
Voice, The, 304. 

Parts concerned in production of, 305. 

Mechanism of, 309. 

Production of, 305. 

Range or compass of, 312. 

Varieties of, 313. 

Quality of, 311. 

Reach of, 312. 

Care and culture of, 314, 401. 
Voluntary muscles, 19. 
Voracious appetite, 119 n. 1. 
Vowel sounds, Production of, 311. 

W. 

"Warmth of the body. See Animal 

heat. 
Waste-water pipes, 211 n. 1. 
Water as a food constituent, 113, 114. 

as a food, 139. 

Kinds, how conveyed, 141. 

Purification of drinking, 144. 

exhaled with the breath, 193. 

Proportion of, in blood, fluids, and tis- 
sues, 114. 
Watery vapor in breath, 193. 
Well-water, 140. 
White matter of the nervous system, 225. 

corpuscles of the blood, 170. 
Windpipe, The. See Trachea. 
Wisdom teeth, 89. 
Woollen clothing, 72. 
"Wormian bones, 1 n. 1. 
Wounds, Treatment of, 335-338. 

Y. 

Yellow spot, The, of the eye, 277. 



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